Copyright holder: Tyndale University, 3377 Bayview Ave., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M2M 3S4 Att.: Library Director, J. William Horsey Library Copyright: This Work has been made available by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws of Canada without the written authority from the copyright owner. Copyright license: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License Citation: Esh, Shontelle. “Family Environment and Attachment Styles in Correlation within an Individual’s Current Emotional Intelligence Scores.” BA Honours (Psychology), Tyndale University, 2021. ***** Begin Content ****** TYNDALE UNIVERSITY 3377 Bayview Avenue Toronto, ON M2M 3S4 TEL: 416.226.6620 www.tyndale.ca Note: This Work has been made available by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws of Canada without the written authority from the copyright owner. Esh, Shontelle. “Family Environment and Attachment Styles in Correlation within an Individual’s Current Emotional Intelligence Scores.” BA Honours (Psychology), Tyndale University, 2021. Page 1 Family Environment and Attachment Styles in Correlation within an Individual’s Current Emotional Intelligence Scores Shontelle Esh Tyndale University PSYCH 4993: Honours Thesis in Psychology Dr. Nancy Ross March 25, 2021 Page 2 Abstract The following information has been accumulated to examine the research question “How are parental relationships, attachment styles and emotional intelligence interrelated?”. Data collected from a sample of 68 individuals (52 of which were students at Tyndale university) was used to measure the correlation between parental relationships, attachment styles and emotional intelligence (EI). The measures used throughout this study were the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, the Close-Relationship Revised Questionnaire, and a Brief Family Relationship Scale. The measures were used to test the hypothesis that strong attachment styles and positive parental relationships correlate with high emotional intelligence. Results confirmed that there were positive correlations between parental relationships, attachment styles and EI. Family Environment and Attachment Styles in Correlation within an Individual’s Current Emotional Intelligence Scores As research has been conducted to examine the many factors with regard to childrearing and the influence that it has in the development of one’s personality, it has been noted that early childhood can play a crucial role in the development of various psychological concepts which will later appear evident in adulthood (Szepsenwol et al 2015). With this in mind, further examination of the correlation between parental family environment, attachment styles and emotional intelligence may help illuminate this developmental process. The primary objective of this study is to address this question: How are family relationships, attachment styles, and the emotional intelligence of University students interrelated? Page 3 The Effects of Childhood Experiences Within Adulthood Though an individual’s childhood can significantly impact who they become as an adult, it can be difficult to determine just how much of an influence childrearing actually has on said outcomes (Szepsenwol, et al, 2015). A variety of studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between childhood experiences and its connection to adulthood (Mathis & Mueller, 2015; Johnston, Cavanagh, & Crosnoe, 2020). Szepsenwol, et al (2015) conducted a study to examine whether or not a dysfunctional childhood upbringing resulted in insecure attachment in adulthood. They noted that “exposure to greater unpredictability early in life should be associated with exposure to less sensitive and supporting parenting which in turn should result in the development of insecure attachment representations in adulthood” (Szepsenwol, et al, 2015, p. 1045). Szepsenwol et al. (2015) also noted that positive parenting is correlated with positive or better child personality characteristics later in life. For example, children who grow up in a home where they feel supported by their primary caregivers are more likely to thrive in stable and healthy future relationships. In other findings, Szepsenwol et al (2015) noted that understanding early environmental issues within the home can help to change the environment and create a pragmatic and constructive childhood. In addition to creating positive family environments, it is critical that children do not take on the stress or anger of their parents (Johnston et al, p. 2020). If a child does take on stress or anger from their parents, they are likely to carry attributes of dysfunctional relationships into adulthood. Researchers Johnston, et al (2020) noted that “Indeed, children’s exposure to their parent’s relationship instability may be reflected in their own adult relationships in ways that disrupt their social mobility and healthy development” (p. 165). For example, young individuals Page 4 who have had parents’ divorce are more likely to also divorce when they are older (Johnston, et al, p. 2020). Dysfunction within family environments can sometimes cause what is known as generational trauma (Doucet & Rovers, 2010). As Doucet and Rovers (2010) note “Generational trauma may be defined as a secondary form of trauma that results from the transfer of traumatic experiences from parents to their children” (p. 94). Generational trauma occurs when an individual has lived through very difficult life circumstances, and the negative outcomes of those experiences impact the way that person treats the next generation (Doucet, & Rovers, 2010). Generational trauma can result from experiences such as atrocities of war to experiencing domestic violence. To provide a more thorough understanding, an example of generational trauma could occur by an individual who is been addicted to alcohol; their struggle with addiction could lead them to become a violent parent. The violence within the home would be considered a difficult or harsh family environment (Walker, 1999). When their child becomes an adult, the child could face the same sort of addiction and could also demonstrate similar violent tendencies to their future children (Walker, 1999). The effects of addiction and trauma could last for generations as it is very difficult for one to break from what they know to be normal (Walker, 1999). It is important to note that not every single person who experiences trauma will fall into the cycle of generational trauma, there are some who have been able to break the chain and live happy and healthy lives, however, studies have noted that those who do experience trauma are more likely than others to have the trauma last for generations (Doucet & Rovers, 2010). Family structure dynamics can be a major influence during child development, and may determine how a person develops and makes choices in the future (Johnston et al, 2020). For example, with children whose parents divorced when they were children, men are more likely to Page 5 enter into a relationship later on in their life, whereas women are more likely to enter into a relationship at a younger age. Although these tendencies are not universal, in the study conducted by Johnston, et al (2020) provide evidence that divorce could have a significant influence over a child’s future life choices with regard to romantic relationships. Family violence increases negative outcomes in relationships as negative attitudes can magnify over time and result in dysfunctional relationships (Mathis & Mueller, 2015). Mathis and Mueller (2015) noted in their study that “intimate partner and non-familial violence reciprocity has been found to increase negative outcomes, mainly because violence escalates over time as a result of increasing levels of retaliation” (p. 316). Therefore, physical and emotional childhood experiences can affect adulthood actions and thoughts. It can be critical to consider early childhood development in terms of environment and parental relationships. Though the studies mentioned above have focused primarily on the negative impacts of hostile environments, Mathis and Mueller (2015) noted that a complementary benefit can be observed for more positive experiences in childhood. For example, when an infant or young child grows up in a safe and welcoming home, they are more likely to have a positive view of the world and long, more suitable future relationships. Additionally, Mathis and Mueller (2015) suggested that parental relationships and attachment style play a significant role in an individual’s personality during childhood and later during adulthood. Attachment Styles As was noted earlier, childhood experiences do have some influential factors over later adulthood personality and characteristics (Mathis & Mueller, 2015). Attachment styles also develop based on childhood experience (Cooke et al, 2019). Attachment is described as a “bond that assures one’s proximity to close others, especially during periods of stress, to guarantee Page 6 feelings of protection and security (Smagur et al, 2018, pp. 460-461). As researchers Cooke et al (2019) stated, “Parent-child relationships, including the quality of children’s attachments, provide critical foundation for the development and organization of children’s emotions” (p. 1103). Positive child attachment is necessary for healthy and secure development. When secure attachment does not occur in infants, there are complications for future connection within relationships (Cooke et al, 2019). When proper attachment does not take place, or when there is stress in early childhood, negative or insecure forms of attachment develop (Cooke, et al, 2019). Attachment during early childhood can develop “cognitive representations or internal working models that guide how individuals think, feel, and behave in close relationships” (Stern et al, 2018, p. 976). Therefore, early attachment plays a significant role in determining how one views the world and relationships with others. According to Brown et al. (2018), attachment develops through either play or caregiving in a parent-child relationship. Secure attachment can be experienced as a form of physical warmth and security that is beneficial for all individuals (IJzerman et al, 2013). Previous research has examined attachment styles in monkeys and connected it to humans through these studies it has been noted that infants who are more securely attached likely have the expectation that their caregivers are available to comfort them should the need arise (IJzerman et al, 2013). An example in contrast to their findings could indicate that insecurely attached monkeys (or infants) would not have developed trust towards their caregivers and do not believe that they will be available for their comfort and protection. Additionally, IJzerman (2013) notes that in the same way that physical touch and emotional stability can influence secure attachment, lack of physical and emotional stability can cause significant insecure or anxious attachment. Page 7 In addition to its impact on childhood, Szepseonwol (2015) noted that attachment can influence positive or negative aspects in adult experiences. It could also be indicated that, with the inference to other types of childhood experiences, secure or insecure attachment as a child will also result in positive or negative aspects of attachment in the future. The first year of infancy is critical for obtaining secure attachment. If attachment is not secure, there will likely be difficulties with relationships in the future (Szepsenwol et al, 2015). Researchers Blatt and Levy (2003) noted that poor attachment causes “emotional distress and personality disturbances, including anxiety, anger, depression, and emotional detachment to which unwilling separations and loss give rise” (p. 107). Additionally, they recognized that “childhood attachment underlies the “later capacities to make affectional bonds as well as a whole range of adult dysfunctions” (Blatt, et al., 2013, p. 107). For example, an individual who has an anxious attachment style might place very high demands on those around them, which could result in poor to no long-lasting relationships in the future. Therefore, obtaining secure attachment can be beneficial for an individual as they relate and connect with those around them (Blatt, et al., 2013). Researchers Prunas et al (2019) conducted a study examining defense mechanisms and attachment styles. They noted that “attachment theory also proposes that defenses are vital to mental and.. .interpersonal functioning” (p. 65). They explained that those who practice responsible parenting will in turn likely raise children who are securely attached and use less defensive mechanisms (Prunas et al, 2019). However, the opposite is true for those who practice reckless parenting styles and are not keenly aware of their children’s needs. Therefore, healthy child/parent relationships are vital for enabling secure attachment styles (Prunas et al, 2019). Page 8 Studying attachment within university students with regard to this specific study will enhance one’s to understanding of how parental relationship and attachment styles have become interrelated with one’s current emotional intelligence. Overall, the intention of this study is to illuminate the correlation between poor attachment styles and parental relationships/styles. Parental Relationships Considering the importance of secure attachment, and its potential impact on adult experiences and behaviour, it is also important to consider the effect of parenting styles with regard to attachment. As researchers Wittig, and Rodriguez (2019) noted “Both parenting and child characteristics are important contributors to child development” (p. 1199). Parental responses to children will impact their behavior; however, child behavior elicits different parenting styles. Understanding childhood environment is beneficial when examining the mental and emotional development of adults. “Parental practices (child-rearing) predict children’s achievement and depression” (Butnaru et al, 2010, p. 405). Not only does parenting play a role in the future development of a child, but it also is influential in a child’s behavioral and emotional problems (Sumargi et al, 2018). The concept that one’s upbringing has great impact on their adulthood is not a new theory (McCrae et al, 1988). “Both traditional wisdom and psychological theories from Freud to Rogers suggest that the interactions of parents with their children are among the major determinants of adult character and personality” (McCrae et al, 1988, p. 417). It was noted that those who have difficult parental relationships or stressful family environments were more likely to struggle as adults and in turn reflect the same attitudes as they became parents (McCrae et al, 1988). This could create a traumatic generational effect of child-rearing and cause long-term damage to one’s inner perception of the world. Similarly, to attachment, a positive home environment and Page 9 parental relationships can help influence an individual’s personality in a positive way (McCrae et al, 1988). Therefore, understanding one’s home environment and parental/family relationship could be beneficial when examining the effect of attachment and emotional intelligence. Though parenting styles are very different for every individual, researchers have determined that there are three main categories that cover most types of parenting. Authoritative, authoritarian and permissive cover most styles of parenting (Chong & Chan, 2015). Those who have been raised in an authoritative environment are more likely to have felt a “balance between love and affection for the children and the exercise of appropriate levels of discipline” (Chong, et al., 2015, p. 196). Children who grow up in this environment would likely have known that they are loved unconditionally, however, they would still be aware of logical expectations (Chong & Chan, 2015). An example of those who grew up in a permissive environment would be that they were free to live their lives as they pleased and were faced with few expectations or rules that needed to be fulfilled. Those who were raised in an authoritarian environment would have experienced unusually high expectations such as “strict and harsh child rearing techniques with an absolute set of standards to which children must conform” (Chong & Chan, 2015, p. 196). This environment is best explained as though they were “walking on eggshells”. Generally, children who have been raised in this environment would be fearful of negative outcomes due to their actions (sometimes in an unrealistic way) (Chong & Chan, 2015). In order to examine parenting styles in a practical and non-clinical way, a parenting scales have been developed (Sanders et al, 2014). Such scales examine parental-child relationships along with family adjustment scales (Sanders et al, 2014). For example, a parent and Family Adjustment Scale (or PAFAS) is used to assess “parenting practices and parent and family adjustment” (p. 257). This scale uses a series of questions rated on a 4-point scale. Once Page 10 the scale is filled out by the participants, the total score is added together (Sanders et al, 2014).. The higher the score, the more dysfunctional the family (Sanders et al., 2014). The primary objective is to determine whether or not there is a correlation between parent/child relationships (or environment in which one was raised) and attachment (Sanders et al, 2014). Another measure that is very useful for assessing attachment styles between parents and children is the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) (Holt, 2014). Researcher Holt (2014) used an inventory of the IPPA to examine three main categories of parenting (trust, communication and alienation) on a five-point scale. Throughout this scale, a primary attachment figure was determined (either the father or mother) and a reliable secure or insecure attachment source was noted (Holt, 2014). In the study developed by Holt (2014), a correlation between help-seeking attitudes, social competence, and self-compassion in relation to parental relationships was developed. The results indicated that parental attachment was positively correlated with help-seeking attitudes, however it was not positively correlated with self- compassion or social competence (Holt, 2014). Thus, it is important to reiterate the essentiality of parental relationships in correlation to an individual. Parenting styles have a very influential role in determining how one comprehends and interacts with their external environment (McCrae et al, 1988). Along with this, it also greatly influences one’s internal processing and understanding of self (McCrae et al, 1988). Therefore, it could be an important area of interest when examining the correlation between attachment, parental relationships (or family environment) and EI. Trait Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EI) could be very impactful when examining one’s perception and communication with the outside world. Chong and Chan (2015) noted in their research study Page 11 that individuals with high emotional intelligence have been known to adjust better to various life circumstances as well as have better, longer-lasting friendships. In contrast, individuals with lower emotional intelligence scores have been known to have higher scores in “alexithymia, depression, pessimism, and impulsivity” (Chong, et al, 2015, p. 195). Individuals with higher emotional intelligence typically score higher in various academic areas, personal well-being tests, and positive health-related academic areas (Chong & Chan, 2015). Keefer et al (2013) noted that individuals with high EI are more likely to be “skilled and feeling self-efficacious in dealing with one’s own and other’s emotions should greatly facilitate problem solving, goal attainment, and psychological adaptation” (p. 1255). Therefore, it is important to note that Emotional Intelligence has some influence over many aspects within one’s everyday life (Chong et al, 2015). The understanding of EI has expanded ones understanding of human emotions within the psychology world (Landa et al, 2010). As Landa et al (2010) noted “EI offered a new perspective in the study of emotions, which have gone from being considered distractions in human cognitive processes to being perceived as vital factors that provide useful information for solving everyday problems” (p. 784). A major contributing aspect of EI is that it correlates to life satisfaction, thus, those with higher Emotional Intelligence are more likely to be satisfied and content with their current life situations (Landa et al, 2010). Keeping in mind that there is a correlation between EI and life satisfaction, there could also be a correlation between early childhood experiences and one’s EI level. As Gardner, et al (2011) noted; temperament has a part to play in one’s emotional intelligence. Thus, the more emotionally intelligence, the milder the temperament. They also noted that “much empirical evidence suggests that the family environment and caregivers play a central role in the Page 12 socialization of emotional skills” (Gardner et al, 2011, p. 76). An example of this would be that a child is taught from an early age what is expected of them and how they should respond to external events. Emotional responses are both consciously and unconsciously instructed by caregivers as certain expectations are engrained (Gardner et al, 2011). Therefore, it is possible that one’s understanding of the world and how they should respond is partially learned from their upbringing. Although there are other environmental factors involved, it is clear that family environment can be a primary contributor (Gardner, et al, 2011). Therefore, it is worth exploring the interrelationships between attachment styles, family relationships and emotional intelligence. According to researchers Huang and Lee (2019), there are two main conceptualizations of emotional intelligence and therefore are various ways to measure emotional intelligence. The first measure is the Trait Model (Huang & Lee, 2019). This model regards emotional intelligence as a “holistic concept, including not only capabilities but also the combination of personal traits, social skills and behavioral attitude” (Huang & Lee, 2019, p. 1). Thus, all concepts are noted by their influence and effect on one another (Huang & Lee, 2019). The second model is called the Ability Model. This particular model examines “emotions and capabilities” (Huang & Lee, 2019, p. 1). Researchers Vernon et al (2008) used a Trait Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) to examine the EI of high school students, mothers and fathers. This test was made-up of 153 questions on a scale of “I completely agree” to “I completely disagree” (Vernon et al, 2008). This test has shown to be reliable as it has been used to measure Trait Emotional Intelligence for a long period of time (Vernon et al, 2008). It is also valid for this current study as Trait EI is a broader range of study and is more likely to connect to Attachment Styles and Parental Relationships. Page 13 The Present Study There are many different factors that play a role in early child development. However, most people would agree that one’s family environment is one of the most influential. Parental relationships and learned attachment styles shape and change the way in which one views the world (McCrae et al, 1988). Along with this, such factors may help one determine how to respond to external events. Therefore, as one grows, these factors play a key role in the way that one understands the world and handles difficult or non-difficult situations (Sumargi et al, 2018). The primary objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that healthy family environments and attachment outcomes were correlated with higher emotional intelligence. Method Section Participants Participants of the study consisted of 68 individuals. Fifty-two of the participants were University students who attend Tyndale University and sixteen of the participants were not students at Tyndale. Out of the 52 students at Tyndale, eight were in their first year, 14 were in their second year, 9 were in their third year, 20 were in their fourth year, and one was in their fifth year. Fifty-five (81%) participants were Caucasian and the remaining participants were from other various ethnic backgrounds. In order to encourage participation, students were offered 1% extra credit in any psychology class of their choosing (for which they were currently enrolled). Any other individuals that participated who are not attending Tyndale University were put into a draw for a $25.00 gift card. Apparatus/Materials Informed Consent Form. A consent form (See Appendix A for a copy of the consent form) was provided to inform the students of their rights and responsibilities within this study. They were Page 14 informed of their ability to freely withdraw from the study at any time. Participants were provided with the Researcher and the Advisors contact information, as well as informed of the confidentiality of their responses. Participants acknowledged their understanding and consent of this form by checking a box that said “Yes, I am 18 years or older”. Attachment Style. An Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R) Questionnaire was used to measure participants attachment styles with others (See Appendix B for a copy of the ECR-R test). Researchers Kooiman et al (2013) found that the ECR-R has test-retest reliability of r= .85. The test consisted of two main subscales. The first measured anxiety scores (questions 1-18) and the second measured avoidance scores (19-36) (Kooiman et al, 2013). Questions for this test included phrases such as “I’m afraid that I will lose my partner’s love” (anxiety) and “I get uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close” (avoidance) (Kooiman et al, 2013). The questionnaire was measured on a 7-point scale (1=Strongly Disagree and 7=Strongly Agree) (Kooiman et al, 2013). Parental Relationships. A Brief Family Relationship Scale (BFRS) was used to examine participants’ family relationships (See Appendix C for a copy of the BFRS scale). This test is a revision of the Family Environment Scale conducted by Moos and Moos (1986). Researchers Chipuer and Villegas (2001) found that the FRS scale of reliability was .38 for Independence, to .77 for Conflict for husbands and .44 for Independence to .77 for Conflict in Wives. The BFRS is a 19-point scale that examines Cohesion, Expressiveness and Conflict within family dynamics (Chipuer & Villegas, 2001). For this specific study, a 7-point scale was used to examine the results (1= Completely Disagree and 7= Completely Agree) (Chipuer & Villegas, 2001). Emotional Intelligence. A Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF) test was used to measure participants’ current emotional intelligence (See Appendix D for a copy of the Page 15 TEIQue-SF test). Researchers Siegling et al (2017) noted that the TEIQue has an internal reliability of .83. The test consisted of 30 questions which focused on how an individual interacts with others on an emotional level (Siegling et al, 2017). Questions consisted of statements such as “On a whole, I’m a highly motived person” or “On a whole, I am pleased with my life” (Siegling et al, 2017). Participants answered questions using a 7-point scale (1= Completely Disagree and 7= Completely Agree) (Siegling et al, 2017).. Demographic Survey: See Appendix E for a copy of the demographic survey that was used to gather data on participants age, ethnicity, year of study, parental/guardianship and undergraduate program. Procedures After receiving approval from the Tyndale Research Ethics Board, participants were recruited through various measures of promotion. Such measures included emails sent out to students, as well as posting on personal social media pages and Tyndale Academic social media pages. Individuals were required to acknowledge that they understood the formal consent form by checking a box that said “Yes, I am 18 years or older” previous to participation. The consent form was posted on the first page of surveymokey.com (the program used to gather research online) to notify students that their participation was purely voluntary and that the data collected from their responses would remain confidential. Participants who partook in the study received a 1% extra credit for any psychology class of their choosing in which they were currently enrolled. Those who were not students at Tyndale but still wished to participate in the study were placed into a draw for a $25 gift card. First, participants completed the measure examining adult attachment styles using an Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R) questionnaire. Next, they completed the parental relationships measure using the Brief Family Relationships Page 16 Scale. Participants then completed the emotional intelligence measure using a Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF). Lastly, they completed the demographic survey. At the end of the survey, participants were thanked for their time and provided with the opportunity to indicate whether they wanted extra credit in a psychology class or to be entered into the drawing for the gift card. Results Descriptive Statistics Table 1 summarizes basic descriptive statistics for the key variables in this study. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Key Measures [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Table 1 details. ] Descriptive Anxiety Avoidance Emotional Cohesion Expressiveness Conflict Statistics Intelligence Mean 3.4430 2.9257 4.6641 5.0192 4.6915 4.8557 Standard deviation 1.15252 .95907 .67139 1.22837 1.47517 1.27158 N 68 68 68 67 67 67 Alpha .943 .947 .905 .921 .848 .894 EI, attachment, and family environment were all measured on a 7-point scale (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree). Attachment scores on the anxiety and avoidance subscales were below neutral. Attachment subscales had a reliability of .943 (anxiety) and .947 (avoidance). EI had a reliability of .905 and the family environment subscales resulted in reliability scores of .921 (cohesion), .848 (expressiveness), and 894 (conflict). Page 17 Hypothesis Testing A pair of Pearson correlations was computed to test the hypothesis that EI was related to anxious and/or avoidant attachment (See the first two columns of Table 2). Table 2: Correlations between EI, attachment measures and family environment measures [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Table 2 details. ] Anxiety Avoidance Cohesion Expressiveness Conflict Emotional Intelligence R -.496** -.369** .349** .286* .346** N 68 68 67 67 67 Note: Higher conflict scores reflect less conflict * p < .05 ** p < .01 EI was negatively related to anxious attachment, r(n=68)=-.496, p<.001 and avoidance attachment, r(n=68)=-.369, p=.001. Thus, higher EI was related to better attachment. See Figure 1 and Figure 2 for scatterplots of these relationships. Page 18 Figure 1: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Attachment Anxiety and EI [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 1 details. ] Figure 2: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Attachment Avoidance and EI [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 2 details. ] Page 19 Pearson correlations were also computed to test the hypothesis that EI was related to the family environment (See the remaining columns in Table 2). EI was positively related to family cohesion r(n=67)=.349,p=.002, expressiveness, r(n=67)=.286, p=.010 and less conflict r(n=67)=.346, p=.002. Higher EI was related to better scores on family environment measures. See Figure 3-5 for the scatterplots of these relationships. Figure 3: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Cohesion and EI [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 3 details. ] Figure 4: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Expressiveness and EI [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 4 details. ] Page 20 Figure 5: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Conflict and EI [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 5 details. ] Page 21 Pearson correlations were computed to test the hypothesis that anxiety was related to family environment (See Table 3 for a summary). Table 3: Correlations between attachment measures and family environment measures [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Table 3 details. ] Cohesion Expressiveness Conflict Anxiety r -.447** -.332** -.533** n 67 67 67 Avoidance r -.290* -.128 -.328 n 67 67 67 Note: Higher conflict scores reflect less conflict * p < .05 ** p < .01 Anxiety was negatively related to family cohesion r(n=67)=-.447, p<.001, expressiveness r(n=67)=-.332, p<.001, conflict r(n=67)=-.533, p<.001. More anxiety was related to lower family cohesion, lower expressiveness, and more family conflict. See Figure 6-8 for the scatterplots of these relationships. Page 22 Figure 6: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Cohesion and Attachment Anxiety [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 6 details. ] Figure 7: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Expressiveness and Attachment [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 7 details. ] Anxiety Page 23 Figure 8: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Conflict and Attachment Anxiety [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 8 details. ] A series of Pearson correlations was computed to test the hypothesis that avoidance was related to family environment. Avoidance was negatively related to family cohesion r(n=67)=-.- .290, p<.001, expressiveness r(n=67)=-.128, p<.001, conflict r(n=67)=-.328, p<.001. More avoidance was related to lower family cohesion, lower expressiveness and more family conflict. See Figure 9-11 for the scatterplots of these relationships. Page 24 Figure 9: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Cohesion and Attachment Avoidance [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 9 details. ] Figure 10: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Family Expressiveness and Attachment [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 10 details. ] Page 25 Figure 11: Scatter Plot of the Relationship Between Attachment Avoidance and Family Conflict [ Please contact repository@tyndale.ca for Figure 10 details. ] Additional Hypothesis Tests Age and Family Environment A total of 48 participants were ages 25 or younger with the remaining twenty participants 26 years or older. A series of independent samples t-tests was carried out to determine whether family environment variables differed based on these two age categories. The younger participants (M=5.03) were not significantly different from the older participants (M=4.99) in family cohesion, t(65)=-.142, p>.05. The younger participants (M=4.74) were not significantly different from the older participants (M=4.58) in family expressiveness, t(65)=-.391, p>.05. The younger participants (M=4.69) were not significantly different from the older participants Page 26 (M=5.27) in family conflict, t(65)=-1.71, p>.05. Family environment did not appear to be related to age. Thus, family environment did not significantly differ depending on age category. Age and Attachment A total of 48 participants were 25 or younger with the remaining 20 participants 26 or older. A series of independent samples t-tests was carried out to determine whether attachment style variables differed based on these two age categories. The younger participants (M=3.66) were significantly different from older participants (M=2.92) in anxiety attachment t(65)=-2.49, p. <.05. The younger participants (M=3.07) were significantly different from older participants (M=2.57) in avoidance attachment t(65)=-2.01, p. <.05. Thus, anxiety measures did differ depending on age category. Age and Emotional Intelligence A total of 48 participants were 25 or younger with the remaining 20 participants 26 or older. A series of independent samples t-tests was carried out to determine whether emotional intelligence variables differed based on these two age categories. The younger participants (M=4.63) were not significantly different from older participants (M=4.74) in EI t(65)=.60, p. <.05. Thus, EI measures did not differ depending on age category. Page 27 Discussion As the data collected from this study has indicated, in coherence with the proposed hypothesis, strong attachment styles and positive parental relationships do correlate with high emotional intelligence. As was noted in the scatterplots, poor EI was related to poor attachment. High EI was related to a more positive family environment. Poor family environments correlated with more insecure attachment and higher EI was related to a more positive family environment. Thus, these results indicated that insecure attachment and poor family environments were related to lower those with lower EI. Similarly, higher EI was correlated to positive family environments and secure attachment. Additional Variables As the data was collected and examined, an area of interest that was facilitated was the changes of significance among EI, family environment, and attachment styles within different age groups. Though no major significances were found among age groups in family environment and EI, there was a significant difference in the age groups (between 18-25 and 26-35) among attachment styles. Those in the older age category statistically had less insecure attachment than those who were younger. With this in consideration, the following paragraphs will facilitate discussion as to why the difference in attachment could occur among various age groups. First, life experience could likely be the cause of the significant differences among age groups. As individuals get older, they generally are faced with more life situations that could induce anxiety and avoidance. Though it is possible that this could cause more insecure attachment, it is also possible that it could cause a larger tolerance to relationships that could cause insecure attachment. Thus, people with more life experience have a greater ability to determine what makes their attachment insecure and find helpful alternatives to help them cope Page 28 with issues within relationships. They are also more likely to be adaptable within harsher life experiences because they have a better understanding of how to handle stresses and overcome them. Along with this, those with more life experience may have a tendency to be more aware of their own insecure attachment tendencies likely due to their own experiences of trial and error within relationships. When a person is aware of their shortcomings, they are able to take steps to help themselves overcome them. Humans learn from experience, it is difficult to change the way that you handle situations if you do not have experience. Thus, it makes sense that those in the higher age category would experience less insecure attachment because they likely have a better handle on how to improve their attachment styles than those who have not had as much life experience. Lastly, it is also a possibility that those in the higher age category have had more opportunity to pursue methods that help them to actively overcome insecure attachment (such as counselling services). If those in the later age group did seek out ways to help restore their insecure attachment and integrate healthier attachment styles into their lives. They also may be more aware of various dynamics within parent-child relationships. When a person is young, they only truly understand their own parental-child relationship. Thus, they may not understand what is considered a “normal” or healthy upbringing in comparison to an unhealthy upbringing. As individuals become older, they are more aware of their own childhood and how it differs from the childhoods of others. If they understand the pros and cons of their own childhood, they are more inclined to seek out opportunities to help them develop healthier habits and more secure attachments. Page 29 Limitations and Restrictions Though this study was very effective in determining the necessary results to prove the hypothesis, there are some measures that were not included in this study there were later revealed to have been an interesting area of study. For example: in the demographic survey questions such as gender, family background and family dynamics were not included. Though these results were not necessary for this study, they would have been very beneficial in providing further information that would have helped researchers to understand the logistics behind the results. Along with this, such findings could be valuable for conducting research in the future. Another limitation of this study is that it is based on subjective data. The individuals who answered the various measurement scales were basing the information purely on their own understandings and interpretations of their past experiences. Though this information is important and useful, it is possible that it could contain various forms of bias, or that their self- understandings are inaccurate depictions of themselves. Though such elements are inevitable when studies are conducted via self-report, it could have skewed the results in this research study. Along with this, it would have been beneficial to provide a more in-depth study of family environment measures. Though the one used in this study was beneficial, perhaps finding one with a more thorough family analysis could have provided a deeper understanding of the influence of family dynamics and their connection to EI and attachment. It would also have been interesting to examine this study thorough a longitudinal lens. A longer study could provide a deeper understanding of attachment measures and family dynamics. It would also be interesting to see if EI changes over time or if it stays the same from childhood into adulthood. Though the information gathered in this study was valuable for its intended Page 30 purpose, it would be interesting to dig deeper into the correlation between family environment, attachment and EI. Thus, it would have been beneficial to obtain additional information within this study through more thorough methods of measurement and a better developed demographic survey. Future Research This study evaluated the connection between EI, family environment and attachment styles. The primary objective of this study was to examine the influence of EI and how it impacts attachment styles and family environment. As the results indicated, there is a positive correlation between EI, attachment and family environment. With this in mind, it is important to note other elements that could have some influence on each of the measures that were not examined in this study. Szepsenwol et al. (2015) mentioned in their research study that a dysfunctional upbringing does have significant influence on insecure attachment when the children reach adulthood. Though there is a connection between the two measures, perhaps a situation occurs where one who has high EI but did not grow up in a positive family environment (through either low cohesion, expressiveness, conflict or all three measures). There is always the possibility that (though family environment does influence EI) there is a more direct measure that has higher influence than family environment. With this in mind, the following section will examine some underlying factors that could have a greater impact than attachment measures on one’s EI. EI is an important factor in personal well-being (Keefer, et al, 2013). Those with higher EI have a tendency to develop stronger and longer-lasting relationships as well as produce higher scores in academic tests, health-related tests, and personal well-being tests (Keefer, et al, 2013). For example, there are elements of emotions, mental capabilities and processing that are biological Page 31 and not learned by the individual. EI is considered “partly or wholly a personality-like trait, or behavioural disposition...a mixture of emotion-related competencies and personality traits” (Malekar & Mohanty, 2009, p. 12). As Johnston et al (2020) noted, children learn a lot about how to handle life by the examples of their parents or guardians. Positive relationships with their parents as well as a positive childhood upbringing have shown to result in emotionally stable adults (Johnston et al, 2020). However, perhaps one could have high EI and still have had a poor childhood upbringing. This particular study only examined the correlation between EI and family environment, however, it could be beneficial to also examine the influence of other factors. It could also be important to examine what the main influencer is, for example: does EI dictate family environment and attachment or do family environment and attachment influence EI. Are the results of this study based on biological or environmental measures? Is it possible that a child is born with low EI and not affected by external events? Or are external events the main cause of EI? Though it is generally understood that both nature and nurture have influence over child development, it would be interesting examine whether or not one could have greater influence over an area in a child’s life. Therefore, though this study does note the connection between family environment and EI, further research could indicate a possible change depending on the situation of the individual taking the test. It would be beneficial for this study to examine other outliers that could influence Similarly, to the connection in a child’s attachment styles and EI, it would be interesting to research whether or not the correlation between attachment measures and family environment could also be depended on other outlying factors that were not examined in this study. It is possible that family environment is not the only influencer of attachment (and vice versa). For Page 32 example: perhaps one could experience a positive family environment and have secure attachment styles, but then (maybe due to a poor romantic relationship, or a falling out with a close friend) they develop insecure attachment styles. Along with this, perhaps one could experience a positive family environment and secure attachment, but then have issues with being bullied at school or have conflict with a sibling and maybe this could cause them to develop insecure attachment styles. Or perhaps one experienced a negative family environment and developed insecure attachment styles at a very young age and then (perhaps through the foster- care system or relocating and living with a different family member) were later exposed to a positive family environment and could re-developed a secure attachment style. It is possible that there are factors beyond human control that could negatively impacted family environment and attachment styles (for example; the death of a loved one, disease, loss of jobs or financial security). Needless to say, there could be many other factors that could have some influence over the correlation between attachment styles and family environment. Unfortunately, this study was not able to cover all outlying factors due to time sensitivity and research that would have been far too extensive. Though none of the above examples are based on past research studies, they would be an area of interest with regard to this particular study. Additional Measures for Future Research As this study was conducted and data was collected, it was noted that there were more measures that could have been added to the demographic section of this study for the sake of further interest. If further research is conducted on this area, it would be interesting to make some notable additions to the demographic study. For example, it could be interesting to determine if gender was a significant factor in EI, attachment, and family environment. It could also be interesting to determine whether or not there is a difference with how one perceives their Page 33 own EI among genders (for example: perhaps the biological differences among men and women could influence their understanding of emotions). Country of origin could also be a notable research subject as the impact one’s family environment could be influenced by their own cultural and societal norms. An example of this can be noted in some cultures, punishing a child due to their poor behaviour is viewed as completely acceptable whereas in other cultures it is considered a poor family environment. Along with this, positive or negative family environment could perhaps be influenced by factors such as family size, frequency of moving, exposure to various cultures, growing up in a multi- cultural family, socioeconomical status and social class could all be important factors in determining one’s family environment, attachment styles and EI. Therefore, it would be beneficial to expand the range of the demographic survey and take these influences into account to see if there are other factors that connect to the correlation between family environment, EI and attachment. Family size could perhaps positively or negatively influence family environment as more children could indicate more financial and personal stress on parents and children, or perhaps it could provide a greater sense of community and family connection. Frequency of moving could perhaps provide a positive element especially if the participant is one who enjoys change. Or it could influence poor attachment styles, perhaps due to lack of a stable community, less intimate relationships. Exposure to various cultures could perhaps be positive as it expands one’s worldview and helps them to be accepting and accepting of different cultures, but it could also perhaps cause a lack of personal identity within their own culture. Along with this, growing up in a multi-cultural family could be very positive as it enables security among relationships, however, it could also cause a negative impact as there could be Page 34 differences in child-rearing which could cause conflict among parents. If parents have a tendency to disagree on childrearing techniques, there could be cause for a negative family environment or insecure attachment. Though the results of all of these demographics are currently unknown, it would be interesting to broaden the scope of the demographic survey to provide deeper research in addition to this study. Future Steps for Those With Low EI, Poor Family Environment, and Insecure Anxiety With consideration to all of these “hidden” factors that could influence the results of the correlation between EI, attachment, and family environment, it is important to note what steps one should take if they come to the conclusion that they have been affected by negative family environments, poor attachment, and/or low EI scores. First, if one does come to the conclusion that they were raised in a negative family environment, it is important to examine more than just the home that one grew up in (Doucet,& Rovers, 2010). Sometimes within a dysfunctional family environment there are elements of generational trauma that have been passed down throughout the generations (Doucet,& Rovers, 2010). For example: if someone was a parent and struggled with drug addictions, it is possible that their struggle would affect their parenting style (Walker, 1999). For the child that grows up in said dysfunctional home, it is possible that they will face a similar struggle with addiction that their parent faced and thus, could also affect their future children creating a cycle of abuse (Walker, 1999). Unless significant changes are made in parenting styles and family environment, the trauma caused within the home could impact the family for generations (Walker, 1999). As Wittig and Rodrigues (2019) noted, the impact of child characteristics and parenting styles contribute to child development and the family environment. Therefore, if one has experienced a poor family environment, it is important to end Page 35 the generational trauma and provide a more positive upbringing to future generations. Along with this, if one does notice that they have struggled with poor attachment styles, such as many failed relationships, an inability to closely connect with others, fear regarding intimacy and so forth, it is important to note that there are ways for them to develop secure attachment (Walker, 1999). This study has shown that family environment, attachment and EI are interrelated, therefore if one is experiencing a disadvantage in one of these areas, it could be possible to overcome it and develop positive and healthy family environment and attachment styles as well as a higher EI. A beneficial method to overcoming such tendencies would be to attend regular therapy appointments and to make use of learning and coping strategies produced by said counsellor. According to Walker (1999) it can become possible to break a cycle of abuse and pain when one comes to terms with the events using two aspects within therapy. “the first was reconnecting the memories (of their past) with the feelings (of their current pain) and working through them; the second was recognizing and exploring how.. .the abuse has led to the emotional loss” (Walker, 1999, p. 288). Therapy has proven to be a very beneficial strategy for obtaining new thought patterns and learning how to overcome psychological obstacles of fear, pain and trauma. In conclusion, though this study has been noted to provide a deeper understanding on the interconnection between family environment, attachment and EI, there are many other areas of research that could be conducted to provide a deeper and more thorough understanding of the connections. 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Psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire. In C. Stough, D. H. Saklofske, and J. D. Parker, Advances in the assessment of emotional intelligence. New York: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387- 88370-0_5 Prunas, A., Di Pierro, R., Huemer, J., & Tagini, A. (2019). Defense mechanisms, remembered parental caregiving, and adult attachment style. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 36(1), 64- 72. https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000158 Sanders, M., Morawska, A., Haslam, D., Filus, A., & Fletcher, R. (2014). Parenting and Family Adjustment Scales (PAFAS): Validation of a Brief Parent-Report Measure for Use in Assessment of Parenting Skills and Family Relationships. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 45(3), 255-272. Siegling, A. B., Vesely, A. K., Saklofske, D. H., Frederickson, N., & Petrides, K. V. (2017). Incremental validity of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF). 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(2015). The effect of unpredictable early childhood environments on parenting in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(6), 1045-1067. https://doi- org.ezproxy.mytyndale.ca:2443/10.1037/pspi0000032.supp (Supplemental) Vernon, P. A., Petrides, K. V., Bratko, D., & Schermer, J. A. (2008). A behavioral genetic study of trait, emotional intelligence. Emotion, 8(5), 635-642. https://doi- org.ezproxy.mytyndale.ca:2443/10.1037/a0013439 Walker, M. (1999). The inter-generational transmission of trauma: The effects of abuse on the survivor’s relationship with their children and on the children themselves. European Journal of Psychotherapy, Counselling and Health, 2(3), 281-296. https://doi- org.ezproxy.mytyndale.ca:2443/10.1080/13642539908400813 Wittig, S. M. O., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2019). Emerging behavior problems: Bidirectional relations between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 55(6), 1199-1210. https://doi- org.ezproxy.mytyndale.ca:2443/10.1037/dev000070 Page 42 Appendix A Consent Form In this study, you will be asked to participate in a series of measurement inventories that are designed to examine emotional intelligence, parental relationships, and attachment styles. This study proposal has been reviewed and received ethics approval through the REB board and is conducted under the supervision of Dr. Nancy Ross (email: nross@tyndale.ca). All information you provide during this study shall remain confidential and all collected data will be kept private at all times. Your participation is completely voluntary and if for any reason you feel uncomfortable at any point during the completion of these tests (for example; dizziness, anxiety, or stress) you are free to withdraw from the study without penalty. Your participation in this study will require approximately 30-45 minutes. Beforehand, during or at the end of the study, you are free to ask any questions that you may have in regard to the study. If you have any questions or concerns regarding this project or your position of rights please feel free to contact Tyndale’s Research Ethics Board (reb@tyndale.ca) or Dr. Nancy Ross (email mentioned above) If you have any further questions or concerns (either current or in the future) in regard to the study, please feel free to contact Shontelle Esh. Please indicate by answering the multiple-choice questions that you understand your rights as a participant, are 18 years or older and agree to take part in this study. o Yes, I am 18 years or older o No, I am not 18 years or older Page 43 Appendix B Close Relationships-Revised Measure (ECR-R) 1 ............2 .............3 ..............4 ............5 ...............6 ............7 Completely Disagree Strongly Agree ANXIETY (Italic questions need to be reversed keyed) 1.I'm afraid that I will lose my partner's love. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I often worry that my partner will not want to stay with me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I worry that romantic partners won’t care about me as much as I care about them. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I often wish that my partner's feelings for me were as strong as my feelings for him or her. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. I worry a lot about my relationships. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. When my partner is out of sight, I worry that he or she might become interested in someone else. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. When I show my feelings for romantic partners, I'm afraid they will not feel the same about me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. I rarely worry about my partner leaving me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. My romantic partner makes me doubt myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. I do not often worry about being abandoned. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. I find that my partner(s) don't want to get as close as I would like. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. Sometimes romantic partners change their feelings about me for no apparent reason. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 44 14. My desire to be very close sometimes scares people away. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. I'm afraid that once a romantic partner gets to know me, he or she won't like who I really am. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. It makes me mad that I don't get the affection and support I need from my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. I worry that I won't measure up to other people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. My partner only seems to notice me when I’m angry. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AVOIDANCE 19 I prefer not to show a partner how I feel deep down. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. I feel comfortable sharing my private thoughts and feelings with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. I find it difficult to allow myself to depend on romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22. I am very comfortable being close to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. I don't feel comfortable opening up to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. I prefer not to be too close to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25. I get uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. I find it relatively easy to get close to my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 27. It's not difficult for me to get close to my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 28. I usually discuss my problems and concerns with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 45 29. It helps to turn to my romantic partner in times of need. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30. I tell my partner just about everything. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 31. I talk things over with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 32. I am nervous when partners get too close to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33. I feel comfortable depending on romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 34. I find it easy to depend on romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 35. It's easy for me to be affectionate with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 36. My partner really understands me and my needs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 46 Appendix C Brief Family Relationship Scale (BFRS) 1 ............2 .............3 ..............4 ............5 ...............6 ............7 Completely Completely Disagree Agree Completely Agree Cohesion 1. In our family we really help and support each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. In our family we spend a lot of time doing things together at home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. In our family we work hard at what we do in our home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. In our family there is a feeling of togetherness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. My family members really support each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. I am proud to be a part of our family. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. In our family we really get along well with each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Expressiveness 4. In our family we can talk openly in our home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. In our family we sometimes tell each other about our personal problems. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. In our family we begin discussions easily. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 47 Conflict 2. In our family we argue a lot. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. In our family we are really mad at each other a lot. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. In our family we lose our tempers a lot. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. In our family we often put down each other. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. My family members sometimes are violent. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. In our family we raise our voice when we are mad. (R) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 48 Appendix D Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire 1 .............2.............3 ................4.............5 ................6.............7 Completely Completely Disagree Agree 1. Expressing my emotions with words is not a problem for me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I often find it difficult to see things from another person’s viewpoint. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. On the whole, I’m a highly motivated person. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I usually find it difficult to regulate my emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I generally don’t find life enjoyable. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. I can deal effectively with people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. I tend to change my mind frequently. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. Many times, I can’t figure out what emotion I'm feeling. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. I often find it difficult to stand up for my rights. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. I’m usually able to influence the way other people feel. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. On the whole, I have a gloomy perspective on most things. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. Those close to me often complain that I don’t treat them right. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 49 14. I often find it difficult to adjust my life according to the circumstances. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. On the whole, I’m able to deal with stress. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. I often find it difficult to show my affection to those close to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. I’m normally able to “get into someone’s shoes” and experience their emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. I normally find it difficult to keep myself motivated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. I’m usually able to find ways to control my emotions when I want to. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. On the whole, I’m pleased with my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. I would describe myself as a good negotiator. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22. I tend to get involved in things I later wish I could get out of. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. I often pause and think about my feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. I believe I’m full of personal strengths. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25. I tend to “back down” even if I know I’m right. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. I don’t seem to have any power at all over other people’s feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 27. I generally believe that things will work out fine in my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 28. I find it difficult to bond well even with those close to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 50 29. Generally, I’m able to adapt to new environments. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30. Others admire me for being relaxed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page 51 Appendix E Demographic Survey (Please indicate in each category which point is applicable to you by checking the box or filling in an answer) Age o Under 18 o 18-25 o 26-35 o 36-45 o 46-65 o 65+ Ethnicity o White/Caucasian o Hispanic/Latino o Black/African American o Asian o Prefer not to say o Other: ___________________ Primary Childhood Caregivers o Biological Parents o Foster Parents o Non-Immediate Family Members (Example: Aunts/Uncles/Grandparents ect.) o Adopted Parents Page 52 o Step-Parents o Other: _____________ o Prefer not to say o Multiple Undergraduate Program Please Specify Current Program of Study: Undergraduate Year of Study o 1st year o 2nd year o 3rd year o 4th year o 5+ year ***** This is the end of the e-text. This e-text was brought to you by Tyndale University, J. William Horsey Library - Tyndale Digital Collections *****