Copyright holder: Tyndale University, 3377 Bayview Ave., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M2M 3S4 Att.: Library Director, J. William Horsey Library Copyright: This Work has been made available by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws of Canada without the written authority from the copyright owner. Copyright license: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License Citation: Idestrom, Rebecca G. S. “Peter C. Craigie and the Old Testament.” M.Rel., Wycliffe College, Toronto School of Theology, University of Toronto, 1990. ***** Begin Content ****** TYNDALE UNIVERSITY 3377 Bayview Avenue Toronto, ON M2M 3S4 TEL: 416.226.6620 www.tyndale.ca Note: This Work has been made available by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws of Canada without the written authority from the copyright owner. Idestrom, Rebecca G. S. “Peter C. Craigie and the Old Testament.” M.Rel., Wycliffe College, Toronto School of Theology, University of Toronto, 1990. PETER C. CRAIGIE AND THE OLD TESTAMENT by Rebecca G. S. Idestrom Submitted to the Faculty of Wycliffe College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Religion Toronto School of Theology University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario April 1990 PREFACE This study is an attempt to understand and interpret the Old Testament scholarship of Peter Campbell Craigie. I initially became interested in Peter Craigie's work as I was reading Mark Noll's book Between Faith and Criticism. At the time, 1 was pondering the issues which confront the evangelical biblical scholar, the tensions involved in maintaining a conservative stance of faith and fully engaging in mainstream critical scholarship. In this context., I came across Peter Craigie's work and realized that he was one such scholar, a conservative who was able to move freely within the mainstream of contemporary scholarship. As a consequence, I became interested in Craigie's work and desired to explore his approach to the Old Testament. This study is a limited attempt to begin to bring into focus the biblical scholarship of Peter Craigie and the significance of his contribution. There are many persons who have assisted me in the preparation of this thesis. I would like to express my appreciation to those whom I was able to interview; each of them knew Peter Craigie personally: Elizabeth Craigie, Stephen Wilson, Eugene Combs, Harold Coward, Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor. Each one provided great insight into Craigie's character, abilities and work. I want thank the Religious Studies Department of the University of Calgary and the University of Calgary Archives for their assistance. I want to especially thank Glen and Marion Taylor for all the time they spent, giving me advice, direction and support and for lending the use of their computer. Shelley Schneider and Jane [ Page ] ii Manary gave many hours to the editing and typing the thesis. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my family, my parents, Manne and Gunvor, my brothers, Niclas and Henric, and my grandmother, Clarita, for all their encouragement and prayers. Thank you. [ Page ] iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE .... ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .... vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .... 1 II. PETER CRAIGIE'S APPROACH TO THE OLD TESTAMENT .... 6 Revelation and Biblical Authority .... 6 The Bible and its Ancient Near Eastern Context .... 17 Comparative Studies .... 18 Deuteronomy .... 20 Ugaritic Studies .... 23 Conclusion .... 31 Biblical Criticism .... 33 The Scientific Approach .... 33 Religious Perspective .... 36 Critical Tools .... 37 Textual Criticism .... 40 Source Criticism .... 41 Redaction Criticism .... 47 Form Criticism .... 50 Literary Criticism .... 55 Conclusion .... 58 Treatment of Difficult Issues For Conservative Scholarship .... 60 Authorship and Date .... 60 The Pentateuch .... 61 Deuteronomy .... 63 Isaiah .... 64 Daniel .... 66 Other Prophetic Books .... 66 [ Page ] iv The Psalms of David .... 70 Conclusion .... 71 Historicity .... 71 The Pentateuch .... 73 Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther .... 75 Jonah .... 76 Conclusion .... 77 The Continual Relevance of the Bible .... 80 Conclusion .... 67 III. THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCED CRAIGIE'S APPROACH .... 69 Education .... 69 Academic Experience .... 97 Conservative Evangelical Background .... 101 Influential People .... 106 Philosophical Issues .... 115 Significant Personal Experiences .... 117 Craigie's Personality .... 118 Conclusion .. 120 IV. CONCLUSION .... 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 126 [ Page ] V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BAR Biblical Archaeology Review BS Bibliotheca Sacra CBQ. Catholic Biblical Quarterly CJT Canadian Journal of Theology C.J. Chelsea Journal CH Church History CT Christianity Today EQ Evangelical Quarterly ET Expository Times ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia IVF Inter - Varsity Fellowship JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. JSOTS Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement. Series JTS Journal of Theological Studies RSR Religious Studies Review RTR Reformed Theological Review [ Page ] vi SJT Scottish Journal of Theology SR Studies in Religion TB Tyndale Bulletin VT Vetus Testamenturn [ Page ] vii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION September 26, 1985 will be remembered as a day of great loss and tragedy; it marks the premature and unexpected death of the great biblical scholar and Christian gentleman, Peter Campbell Craigie.1 Although he died young, at the age of 47, he made a tremendous contribution to the scholarly world as well as to public life. This can be demonstrated by reflecting upon his life and academic career as well as in the legacy of writings that he left behind him: eight books and over ninety articles published in both academic and popular journals.2 Not only was Peter Craigie an outstanding scholar, teacher, writer and editor, he was also an able administrator, serving in leadership capacities on several committees, boards and societies, including the role of Vice- President Academic of the University of Calgary at his death.3 He was also a husband to Dr. Elizabeth Craigie and fattier to two children, Gregor and Gillian. Craigie's remarkable achievements, gifts and talents ___________________________ 1Peter Craigie died as a result of a tragic car accident. Stephen G. Wilson, "Peter Campbell Craigie Dies," BAR 12/1 (1986) 8. 2Peter C. Craigie, "Bibliography of Publications, Theses, Papers," provided courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Craigie of Calgary, Alberta, August, 1989. 3Stephen G. Wilson, “Peter Campbell Craigie, 1938-1985: In Memoriam," SR 14/2 (1985) 233. [ Page ] 1 [ Page ] 2 combined with his warm, friendly and sincere personality, makes the death of this exceptional man a great loss. The focus of this thesis will be upon Peter Craigie's invaluable contribution as a biblical and Ugaritic scholar; in particular, I will concentrate on his work and perspective in Old Testament studies. Craigie's approach to biblical scholarship is best characterized as conservative, taking a moderately cautious stance. Yet as a conservative scholar he worked fully within the spectrum of contemporary scholarship. Craigie cannot be accused of holding to a rigid, uncritical and obscurantist approach: his conservative views were not maintained by simply ignoring the alternatives. He read widely and was in continual dialogue and interaction with positions and perspectives other than his own. This interaction was not undertaken in a defensive or apologetic fashion; rather, he recognized legitimacy in other views and was open to learning from them. In an article entitled, "The Role and Relevance of Biblical Research," Craigie refuted the idea that the role of conservative biblical scholars is primarily apologetic within contemporary scholarship.4 He believed that conservative scholarship "should not be blind and partisan towards other forms of biblical scholarship, but may be informed by them and contribute to them."5 Craigie advocated that conservative scholars undertake the more positive task of making a contribution to ____________________________ 4Peter C. Craigie, "The Role and Relevance of Biblical Research," JSOT 18 (I980) 29. 5Ibid., 30. [ Page ] 3 contemporary biblical research rather than being on the defensive.6 This is the responsible scholarly approach which Craigie personally exemplified. Peter Craigie was widely respected for his biblical scholarship inspite of his cautious and conservative stance. On the one hand, he associated with the conservative and evangelical camp; on the other hand, he moved freely within the broader context of the more "liberal" circles of contemporary scholarship. He set the unique example of a conservative scholar who was able to bridge both worlds; he was received and well thought of by both camps. He was even able to win the admiration and respect of those who did not agree with his conservative conclusions.7 The question is how he was able to accomplish this feat. Part of the answer to this query can be found in a study of Craigie's own understanding and approach to the Old Testament. It is the purpose of this thesis first to clarify and analyze Craigie’s approach to the study of the Old Testament and then to identify the various factors which influenced his views. Thus, the thesis will be structured in two major parts. The first task is essentially descriptive: to portray Craigie's understanding of the Old Testament and determine the methods and tools he employed in this undertaking. The second is more speculative: to determine the factors which shaped his position. Conclusions here will be more tentative because of the more subjective nature of the task. _________________________ 6Peter C. Craigie, Review of The Word Becoming Flesh, by H. D. Hummel, JBL 100 (1981) 107. 7John Bright, Review of Deuteronomy. by Peter C. Craigie, Interpretation 32 (1978) 86. [ Page ] 4 In the first part, I will begin by looking at Craigie's view of biblical revelation and authority, which was foundational to his stance towards the Old Testament; it shaped his approach and influenced his conclusions. Secondly, I will consider Craigie's understanding of the Bible in its relation to its Near Eastern context. Craigie's interest in the archaeology, history and culture of the ancient Near East, and particularly in the discoveries of Ugarit contributed to his understanding of the Bible. Thirdly, I will analyze Craigie's adoption and use of various higher-critical tools and methodologies in his study of the Old Testament with a special focus upon the way he deals with issues which have traditionally been problematic for conservatives, that is, dating, authorship and historicity. Finally, I will examine Craigie's view of the relevance of the Bible to the contemporary situation. His high view of the Old Testament Scriptures and his commitment to it compelled him to demonstrate the importance and relevance of the Bible to the practical questions of life in the twentieth century. Consequently, one aspect of Craigie's approach in studying and teaching the Bible was concentrated on showing its theological application. The second task of this thesis is to try to identify the different factors which influenced Craigie's understanding and approach to the Old Testament Scriptures. In this section, I will consider the influences of Craigie's educational and academic experiences upon his stance towards the Old Testament. There was also the effect of particular people and philosophical ideas and movements upon Craigie. I will examine his conservative upbringing, his Scottish background and significant personal experiences which also shaped his thought. Craigie's own conservative personality as well as his personal piety and faith were also significant. [ Page ] 5 factors which shaped his approach to the Bible. I will deal with each of these factors in turn., as each of these molded and affected the development of Craigie's interpretation and approach to the Old Testament Scriptures. Chapter 2 PETER CRAIGIE'S APPROACH TO THE OLD TESTAMENT The purpose of this chapter is to describe and analyze Peter Craigie's approach to the Old Testament. His perspective on biblical studies will be depicted by focusing upon five different topics under the following section headings: 1) revelation and biblical authority; 2) the Bible in its ancient near eastern context; 3) biblical criticism; 4) treatment of difficult issues for conservative scholarship; 5) the continual relevance of the Bible. Each topic will be considered in turn and in relation to their overall effect upon Craigie's understanding of and approach to the Old Testament. 2.1 REVELATION AND BIBLICAL AUTHORITY Peter Craigie's view of revelation and biblical authority is foundational to his understanding and approach to the Old Testament. Craigie's personal conviction is that the Bible is the divinely inspired and revealed Word of God; as a canonical writing it is Holy Scripture. As such, the Bible is authoritative for Christian life and practice. Peter Craigie thus comes to the biblical text from a standpoint of faith; more specifically, his is a Christian evangelical perspective. Although he recognizes the Hebrew [ Page ] 6 [ Page ] 7 Bible as the authoritative Scripture for the Jewish believer, his commitment to the Bible stems from his own personal faith as Christian. Craigie's concept of divine revelation is essentially that the biblical account is not simply a human creation; the source of the Bible is found in God. Craigie makes this assertion plain: "It is necessary to stress that ultimately the authority of the books of the Law is to be found in their source in God -- that is, in their character as revelation."1 The Scriptures have been divinely inspired.2 In his commentary on the book of Deuteronomy, Craigie articulates this same basic presupposition which is present in his work on the biblical text as whole, namely: "Deuteronomy is a part of the Word of God and not simply the product of human imagination."3 It will become evident that this belief will have profound implications for his approach to the Old Testament. Craigie, however, does not deny the humanness of Scripture; it is the Word of God in the words of human persons. God chooses to reveal Himself through human instruments and human history. "For though the biblical message is eternal, its form and setting are historical and temporal."4 Craigie believes that the Bible is a profoundly spiritual work whose truth-value is continually relevant, yet has come to us through _____________________________ 1 Peter C. Craigie, The Old Testament: Its Background. Growth and Content (Nashville: Abingdon, 1986) 126. 2Craigie holds that the Scripures have been divinely inspired without holding to some form of the dictation theory of revelation. 3Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 1976) 6. 4Peter C. Craigie, Ugarit and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983) 4. [ Page ] 8 human mediation.5 It is this human aspect of the Scriptures which opens the door for the scientific investigation of the biblical text in terms of its history., language and literature. Craigie believes that it is possible to engage in the scientific examination of the biblical account while at the same time holding to a view of divine revelation and inspiration of Scripture. This affirmation is maintained by an act of faith. The view that the Pentateuch is a part of divine revelation is necessarily an article of faith; that faith, nevertheless in the divine authority of the books can be maintained, while concurrently one engages in the difficult questions of the human origins and forms of the Pentateuch.6 Craigie is able to do both: his faith in the divine character of the Scriptures remains firm while he employs a scientific approach to studying the Bible. This approach, however, is not without its difficulties. Craigie recognizes that there is inevitably tension between a faith commitment to the doctrines of revelation and inspiration and a commitment to the scientific study of the Scriptures.7 In discussing this tension, Craigie identifies the problem: The nature of the Bible as revelation is such that it is, ipso facto, beyond reason in terms of the truth it imparts. The mercy and faithfulness of a loving, personal God cannot be independently established by reason.8 ___________________________ 5Ibid., 21. 6Ibid., 126. 7Craigie, Deuteronomy, 75. 8Ibid., 76. 9 The scientific method, however, employs human reason in its examination of the biblical text; as such, the scientific approach lies outside the realm of faith. This inevitably produces a dilemma for the conservative scholar. In Craigie's words, it may lead to a kind of "schizophrenic tension."9 The dilemma produced by higher critical method becomes most obvious in the realm of Old Testament Theology, for it becomes necessary for some Biblical scholars to operate on a double set of axioms; knowledge (critical Biblical method) and faith (the Bible as revelation) may often be put in separate "compartments" and the relationship between the two becomes extremely ambivalent.10 Craigie goes on to say that there is good reason for this dilemma: "The very nature of the Biblical revelation, as being divine in its source but human in its mediation, meant that the dilemma was always potential."11 Craigie is aware of this tension in his own study of the Old Testament. He is concerned to maintain a balance between the theological and scientific approaches to the Scriptures. To achieve this is no easy goal, as he admits. The question involves the extent to which one can go in applying the scientific method without undermining the belief in the integrity of the Bible as revelation.12 Craigie's response to toe dilemma is critical for understanding his approach to the Old Testament Scriptures; his solution to this problem is ____________________________ 9Peter C. Craigie, "The Influence of Spinoza in toe Higher Criticism of toe Old Testament," EQ 50 (1978) 31. 10Ibid., 31. 11 Ibid. 12Craigie, Deuteronomy. 77. [ Page ] 10 explicated in his commentary on the book of Deuteronomy. Since Craigie believes that the biblical text is not purely a human document but rather a divinely revealed and inspired work (albeit through human mediation), he employs the scientific method with caution and with certain limitations.13 The role that historical and scientific method are granted is, relatively, a subsidiary one. Insofar as scientific and historical criticism are an aid to understanding, they are valuable, but they are not considered to be the sine qua non for interpreting the OT.14 He reminds the reader that it is possible to grasp the profound meaning of the Bible without the aid of scientific methodologies.15 The various historical and scientific methods and tools are simply supplementary aids in the process of biblical interpretation. Consequently, there are some limits in their use. Craigie describes his own approach to the biblical text as "theological-historical or theological-scientific."16 He follows the position held by George E. Ladd and Gerhard F. Hasel, although Craigie defines his perspective as theological-historical rather than as historical-theological showing his bias towards the theological aspect.17 Hasel believes that the __________________________ 13Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15Ibid., 78. 16Ibid., 77. 17George E. Ladd, The Hew Testament and Criticism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967) 40; Gerhard F. Hasel, Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972) 81. [ Page ] 11 nature of the Bible is such that it requires a movement from the historical examination of the text, to a theological one. The historical-critical method is not adequate to deal with the divine dimension of the Scriptures.13 Craigie adopts the same position as Hasel. He clarifies the meaning of the theological -historical approach in a footnote: By theological-historical, I mean a concept of history that makes allowance for the intervention of a transcendent. God. This is a (theological) assumption; the concept thus differs from an alternative point of view, according to which history is seen as an unbroken continium of causes and effects, which involves the further assumption that there can be no transcendental intervention in historical process.19 In Craigie's understanding, history in the biblical account is not. an enclosed system, a sequence of causes and effects in which there is no room for divine intervention.20 The providence of God and his involvement in human existence are profound convictions which fundamentally shape the Hebrew concept of history. This biblical notion is consistent with Craigie's understanding of divine revelation. He believes that there are two principal modes of divine revelation: the spoken word and divine participation in human history.21 God reveals himself in both these ways as the Scriptures attest. Consequently, Craigie's approach to the Old Testament allows for the intervention of a ___________________________ 18Hasel, Old Testament. Theology, 82-85. 19Craigie, Deuteronomy, 77, n. 9. 20Peter C. Craigie, The Problem of War in the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978) 41. 21 Ibid., 39. [ Page ] 12 transcendent God into human history. This perspective is a theological one: his concept of history arises from a standpoint of faith. Craigie's understanding of the nature of Scripture and of history sets certain limits upon his use of the higher-critical tools. The extent to which he employs the historical and scientific approach is determined by this theological concept, of history. Thus, Craigie's approach to the Old Testament Scriptures can be defined as theological-historical. It is consistent with his view of biblical revelation. Craigie's perspective has been influenced by the nature of his understanding of God's self- revelation in Scripture. In his approach to the biblical narrative, Craigie operates on two levels: the level of scientific inquiry and the level of faith. The purpose of the scientific approach is not, however, to "prove" the veracity of the biblical account, but rather to serve as an aid in interpreting and understanding the biblical material. Any attempt to use scientific discoveries for the sole purpose of trying to verify the accuracy and reliability of the Bible signifies a loss of faith.22 Craigie uses the example of archaeology to clarify this point. The findings of archaeology may indeed "prove" certain aspects; of the Scriptures; they may also require us to rethink certain views about the biblical account. But it is necessary to recognize that there is a necessary difference between the realm of faith and that of archaeology and science.23 _________________________ 22Craigie, Ugarit and the Old Testament, 98; idem, The Old Testament, 102. 23Craigie. The Old Testament, 102. [ Page ] 13 Archaeology may be of enormous assistance in studying the Bible at what might be called the mundane level. The religious level of study, however, requires a different kind of sensitivity and understanding.24 * The discoveries of archaeology and science may inform and even strengthen our faith, but. this is not their primary purpose. Belief in the truth and revelatory character of the Bible is an act of faith and this act lies outside the realm of science. In Craigie's words, To prove that the historical narrative of the Old Testament is accurate, if such were possible, does not prove the essential truth of the Bible — namely, what it says about. God. That must always remain both the subject and the object of faith.25 Thus, Craigie's belief in the Bible as divine revelation is an act of faith not a result, of scientific inquiry. This religious stance in turn affects his approach to the Old Testament. Craigie's understanding of the Bible as divine revelation is affected by his view of canon; the biblical books are considered inspired and authoritative because of their inclusion in the canon of Holy Scripture.26 Craigie comes to the Old Testament text, from a Christian perspective; therefore he accepts both the Old and New Testaments as part of canonical Scripture. This view of the scope of the canon affects the way in which Craigie interprets the Old Testament, namely with reference to ______________________________ 24Ibid. 25Craigie, Ugarit and the Testament, 96. 26Peter C. Craigie, Psalms 1-50 (Waco: Word, 1982) 39. [ Page ] 14 the New Testament and to Jesus Christ.27 The Old Testament prepares the way for the New Testament. 28 For example, Moses as a prophet in the Old Covenant foreshadowed Jesus Christ as the prophet of the New Covenant.29 Sometimes he turns to the New Testament in order to solve a difficult passage in the Old Testament. But before doing so, he always begins with the Old Testament text in its historical and cultural context in order to attempt to understand it in its own right. 30 ... we must be very careful from the start not to lay aside too easily the Old Testament and its difficulties and to imply that it is, in effect, "second class" revelation in contrast to the New Testament. 31 Too often Christians tend to discard the Old Testament as irrelevant, as if it does not have the same status as divine revelation as the New Testament. But since the New Testament relies so much on the Old Testament, Craigie believes that rejecting the Hebrew Scriptures "will __________________________ 27Craigie, Deuteronomy, 264. 28Craigie is against adopting a christological interpretation of everything in the Old Testament. He recognizes that such interpretation does have a place, but argues that it tends to miss the valid meaning of the Old Testament text, in its original context- In practice, Craigie does occasionally employ this method of interpretation (Peter C. Craigie, "Hebrew Thought about God and Nature and its Contemporary Significance," CJT 16 [1970] 3). 29Craigie. Deuteronomy, 39. 30Craigie, Problem of War, 12. 31 Ibid. [ Page ] 15 result in a shrunken form of the New Testarnent."32 As Holy Scripture both Testaments need to be recognized as equally inspired and authoritative. Craigie's understanding of the nature of the Old Testament as divine revelation has implications for his view of its authority and relevance to contemporary life. Craigie is not content solely with the historical study of the Old Testament but believes that the Bible as the Word of God is authoritative for Christian life and practice. It [the Bible] affects what is believed and what is practiced; it is read both privately in devotion and publicly in worship. It is never merely an ancient text; it is God's revelation, divine knowledge graciously imparted to mankind in human and physical form .. . this ancient book is still, in a special way, modern and living. If we think of it only as a work of antiquity, we will miss much of its power and significance.33 Craigie's demonstrates this conviction by strongly advocating the continual vitality and relevance of the Bible to modern contemporary life.34 This belief is a theological assumption which is rooted in his basic understanding of the nature of the Bible as divine revelation which consequently affects his approach to the Old Testament Scriptures. This first section has briefly defined and described the nature of Craigie's notion of revelation and biblical authority. It is evident that Craigie believes the Bible to be the divinely inspired and revealed Word ____________________________ 32Ibid., 34n. 3. 33Craigie, Old Testament, 38. 34There are many examples of this in Craigie's writings. I will deal with his view of the Bible's relevance for today more in depth in section five of this chapter. I mention it here simply because Craigie's conviction stems from his view of biblical authority and revelation. [ Page ] 16 of God. He comes to this conviction by an act of faith rather than through the findings of scientific investigation. Craigie's view is foundational to his understanding and approach to the Old Testament and exerts a profound effect upon his perspective and work in biblical studies. [ Page ] 17 2.2 THE BIBLE AND ITS ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN CONTEXT The purpose of this section is to explore the way which Peter Craigie understands the Bible in relation to its ancient Near Eastern context and to ascertain the importance he places upon comparative studies. There will be a general description of his attitude and approach to comparative studies with a special focus on his perspective on Ugarit and its significance for illuminating the biblical text. Peter Craigie's work on the Old Testament reveals a deep knowledge of the historical and cultural context, in which the Bible originated and received its shape. Craigie believes that some knowledge of the biblical world is essential in order to understand the history of Israel and the Old Testament account.35 He notes that the biblical narrative constantly makes allusions to Israel's neighbours. Hence., a knowledge of these nations and their history., culture, and religion will enhance our comprehension of the Old Testament. 36 Craigie places great importance upon an approach which takes into account the ancient Near Eastern setting.; he employs comparative studies to provide this context to illuminate the biblical account. ___________________________ 35Craigie, Old Testament, 76. 36 Ibid. [ Page ] 18 Craigie recognizes that there is a gap between the twentieth century and the time of ancient Israel which is not easy to bridge. This barrier of time can only be overcome if we seek to understand the ancient cultural milieu of the biblical world. There are, however, wrong ways of approaching the task: one is an attitude of arrogance, in which our present world is perceived as modern and advanced while Israel's world is assumed to be as primitive and uncivilized. Craigie warns against this wrong approach. 37 The danger might be described as the arrogance of modernity, the assumption that only in our own century has civilization come of age, and that the ancient world was savage and primitive.38 A study of the history of human civilization in the ancient Near East will show that civilization was quite advanced around 3000 B.C. Craigie reminds us that when we read the Old Testament we must remember that the history of Israel occurred in a long-established world. 39 2.2.1 Comparative Studies One helpful aid to informing our knowledge of the biblical world is the discoveries of archaeology. Craigie recognizes the value of archaeology and uses its findings in his approach to the biblical account.40 Archaeological evidence can give us new insights into the culture, history. _________________________ 37Ibid., 30. 38Ibid., 46. 39Ibid., 31. 40.Ibid., 79-80. [ Page ] 19 language and literature of the Near Eastern context which in turn may shed light upon the history of Israel. Consequently, he sees great advantages in comparative studies and frequently employs their results in his study of the Old Testament.41 This comparative approach has great merit; however, Craigie recognizes the potential for abuse. An unwarranted use of archaeological discoveries is to attempt to prove or disprove the truth of the Bible.42 He notes also the danger of expecting the results of comparative studies to provide definitive answers to difficult questions posed by the biblical text. In Craigie's words, "new evidence broadens the range of options, but does not automatically lead to correct answers."43 There is always a subjective element in the process of interpretation. Therefore, Craigie calls for a cautious approach to comparative studies which employs certain controlling factors in interpreting the data.44 This principle of caution permeates Craigie's approach. I will now turn to a few examples which will demonstrate how Craigie makes use of the comparative studies in his work on the Old Testament, and the controls he establishes to evaluate the evidence. The value which Craigie places upon the results of comparative studies is seen in his frequent use of the data to shed light upon the biblical text. He sees many similarities and parallels in language and literature between the biblical document and the writings found among __________________________ 41Craigie, Psalms, 49. 42Craigie, Old Testament, 101. 43Craigie, Psalms, 53. 44Ibid., 53-56. [ Page ] 20 Israel's neighbours, for example, in Egypt, Canaan and Mesopotamia. In one of his earlier studies, he notes an Egyptian expression incorporated into the text of the song of the Moses in Exod 15:4.45 Craigie also acknowledges the parallels between the wisdom tradition in Israel and the wisdom schools of the ancient Near East. There are similarities between the biblical wisdom literature and that of Egypt. and Mesopotamia. Yet Craigie is careful to recognize the distinctive differences which find their basis in the theological perspective of the Bible.46 One of his examples of this theological particularity is the great distinction made in biblical tradition between God and nature. The notion of a transcendent. God entirely separate from nature is not found in the religions of Israel’s neighbours. Although there are similarities in expression, it is also important to recognize the significant differences.47 2.2.2 Deuteronomy Craigie's commentary on the book of Deuteronomy provides a clear example of his use of comparative studies to illuminate the biblical account. Craigie sees close parallels between the form of Deuteronomy and the covenant form of Near Eastern vassal treaties. Several components of the vassal treaty employed in the Near East can be ___________________________ 45Peter C. Craigie, “An Egyptian Expression in the Song of the Sea," VT 20 (1970) 83-86. 46Craigie, Old Testament, 316-19. 47Craigie, "Hebrew Thought," 4. [ Page ] 21 perceived in the structure of the book.48 Craigie believes that the Israelites adapted the structure of this common vassal treaty to demonstrate their own covenant relationship with their God. The Hebrews adapted the treaty form for their own use in order to express the nature of their relationship to God. For many years they were in effect vassals to Egypt, but that old bondage was brought to an end in the Exodus from Egypt. Being liberated from bondage to an earthly power, they then submitted themselves in the Sinai covenant to become vassals of God, the one who had liberated them from Egypt. The nature of this new submission, expressed in the covenant, finds its dramatic expression through the utilization and adaption of the treaty form.49 The Israelites borrowed this covenant structure and adapted it for their own purposes. One implication of recognizing this structural feature of the book of Deuteronomy is the weight that it gives to an argument for the unity of the book.50 Craigie's argument for this proposal and its significance for questions of date and authorship will be considered in the fourth section of this chapter. Since Craigie understands the essential structure of the book of Deuteronomy to be shaped by the Near Eastern __________________________ 4SCraigie, Deuteronomy, 22-24. The six components in its classical form are as follows: 1. Preamble (ch. 1:1-5); 2. Historical Prologue (chs. 1:6- 4:49); 3. General Stipulations (chs. 5-11); 4. Specific Stipulations (chs. 12- 26); 5. Blessings and Curses (chs. 27-28); 6. Witnesses (chs. 30:19; 31:19; 32:1-43). 49Ibid., 23. 50Ibid., 24. [Page ] 22 vassal treaty, the covenant form becomes the basic framework for Craigie's commentary. 51 Another example of Craigie's use of comparative studies to illuminate the text, of Deuteronomy is the close parallels he perceives between the laws found in Deuteronomy and those found in the legal tradition of the ancient Near East. For example, he notes similarities between the social legislation of Deuteronomy and the Law Code of Hammurabi.52 He also acknowledges the existence of parallel material between Deuteronomy chapter 28 and the vassal treaties of Esarhaddon.53 The difficult question is how to interpret the importance of this data. In the case of Deuteronomy 28 and the treaty of Esarhaddon, Craigie believes that there is no direct relationship.54 As a possible explanation for these parallels and similarities, he suggests that there existed "an ancient and widespread common core of Semitic legal tradition";55 this would imply that the parallels may be coincidental. They simply drew upon a common legal resource and adapted it for their ___________________________ 51In an appendix to his commentary to the book of Deuteronomy, Craigie proposes a possible Egyptian background for the treaty form of the Israelite covenant. He suggests that the Israelites' relationship to the Egyptian pharaoh may have taken the shape of a treaty contract (for slave labour) which may have some parallels with the nature of the covenant established between the Israelites and their God. The Egyptian experience may have influenced the form of the Hebrew covenant. (Craigie, Deuteronomy. 79-83) 52Ibid., 55. 53Ibid., 339. 54Ibid., 340. 55Ibid., 55. [ Page ] 23 own purposes.56 Nevertheless, an awareness of these parallels can be helpful for interpreting the biblical text. If space permitted, many more examples could be given which demonstrate Craigie's use of comparative studies to interpret the book of Deuteronomy. Before closing this section, however, I will examine how Craigie employs the findings of Ugaritic studies, an important element in his interpretation of the Old Testament Scriptures. 2.2.3 Ugaritic Studies Craigie had a special love and interest in Ugaritic studies; this is evident from the great contribution he made to this field of study. He published a book and several articles on the literature of Ugarit and was founder and editor of the Newsletter for Ugaritic Studies from 1972 until his death.57 As a result, it is not surprising to find that the discoveries of Ugarit play a prominent role in his work as a biblical scholar. Craigie continually reflects upon the findings of Ugaritic research and evaluates their relevance for interpreting the Old Testament. He recognizes the tremendous value and significance found in a comparative study of Ugarit and Israel but is also aware of the various difficulties.58 Once again, Craigie follows the principle of caution in his approach to interpreting the data and in evaluating its merit for understanding the biblical text.59 __________________________ 56Ibid., 340. 57Peter C. Craigie, Curriculum Vitae, provided courtesy of the Religious Studies Department, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta., August, 1989. 58Craigie, Ugarit. and the Old Testament, 67-68. 59Craigie, Psalms, 51-56. [ Page ] 24 There are several reasons for Craigie's belief that Ugaritic research can be a tremendous help in illuminating the Old Testament account. Foremost, the discoveries of Ugarit have contributed to a better general knowledge of the biblical world; the findings have filled in some gaps in our information on the ancient Near Eastern civilization.60 This, in turn, has shed light upon the customs and practices of the Israelites and their neighbours and has also contributed new insights to our understanding of the language and literature of the Hebrew Bible.61 In his writings, Peter Craigie provides several examples to illustrate the benefits which Ugaritic studies have brought to understanding the Old Testament and its world. The literature of Ugarit has shed upon the nature of the belief in Baal in the ancient Near East. Before the discovery of Ugarit, there was little information on Baal and Baal worship, but the Ugaritic texts have revealed invaluable data because Baal worship figures prominently in Israel's idolatry.62 The texts of Ugarit have also contributed considerably to our understanding of the language and literature of the Old Testament. The Ugaritic language is linguistically a close relative to Hebrew; as a consequence, comparative study of these cognate languages has provided insights into the meanings of obscure and uncommon words in the Hebrew Bible. For example, scholars have pondered the use and meaning of the rare term nōqēd to describe Amos's profession as shepherd; the infrequent use of the word in the Bible has made it difficult to interpret. ____________________________ 60Craigie, Ugarit and the Old Testament, 6. 61Ibid., 67-68. 62Ibid., 66. [ Page ] 25 The equivalent of this obscure Hebrew term, however, is found in Ugaritic; thus, the awareness of the Ugaritic word helps clarify the meaning of the Hebrew term used in Amos.63 Craigie often uses this comparative approach to Semitic languages in his work to aid him in interpreting the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. While Craigie recognizes the invaluable contribution that the discoveries of Ugarit have made to biblical scholarship, he is well awe of the potential dangers of comparative study. There is a dangerous tendency among some scholars to take the results of Ugaritic studies to an extreme; this tendency Craigie calls "pan-Ugaritism." He defines this phenomenon as "the danger involved in excessive use of Ugaritic data, or of seeing the distant hand of an Ugaritic scribe behind every jot and tittle of the Hebrew text."64 In this context, Craigie refers to the potential misuse of "the Ugaritic and Hebrew Parallels Project," a major project which began in 1965, sponsored by the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity in Claremont, California.65 The purpose of this enormous undertaking is to list all the parallels between Ugaritic, Akkadian and _________________________ 63 Ibid., 71-76; From his analysis of all the different Ugaritic texts concerning nqd, Craigie comes to the conclusion that the term probably refers to someone who was a sheep manager in the royal service and who had greater status than an ordinary shepherd; the term does not necessarily carry religious connotations. Therefore, Craigie concludes that Amos was a fairly important figure in Israelite society, not just a simple shepherd. (P. C. Craigie, "Amos the nōqēd in the light of Ugarit," SR 11/1 [1962] 29-33 ) 64Peter Craigie, "The Bible and Ugaritic Studies: A Critical Assessment of Current Research," in Religious Studies in the Pacific (ed. J. Hinchcliff; Auckland, New Zealand: Colloquium, 1978) 64. 65Ibid. [ Page ] 26 Hebrew. Although it will be a helpful aid to comparative study, the nature of the task and sources is such that there are various problems involved and scholarly disagreement over the results is inevitable.66 The potential danger lies in finding all the answers to difficult questions in this project. Craigie does acknowledge the importance of this comparative study, but he also recognizes the tentative nature of its; results. He advocates a careful and balanced approach which applies the conservative principle of caution in evaluating the results of comparative study; in taking this stance, it may be possible to avoid the potential pitfalls and dangers of "pan-Ugaritism." The approach which Craigie calls for is demonstrated in his own use of comparative studies and, in particular, in his application of the results of Ugaritic studies to his understanding of the book of Psalms. His conservative tendency towards a more cautious perspective is reflected in his response to the work of Mitchell Dahood. Throughout his commentary on the Psalms, Craigie draws upon the insights of Ugaritic to illuminate the meaning of obscure poetic words and phrases. The poetry of Ugarit has been an invaluable resource for interpreting Hebrew poetry.67 Craigie acknowledges the important contribution of Mitchell Dahood's innovative and influential comparative study of Ugaritic poetry and the Psalms.68 Craigie believes that it is necessary to come to terms with Dahood's use of Ugaritic poetry to interpret the Psalms if one is to be __________________________ 66Ibid, 64-65. 67Craigie, Psalms, 50. 68Ibid., 51; Mitchell Dahood, Psalms I, 1-50 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1965). [ Page ] 27 a responsible biblical exegete of Hebrew poetry.69 He personally demonstrates this conviction in his own commentary on the Psalms, in which he continuously interacts with Dahood's theories and suggestions in the footnotes. While he acknowledges a great debt to the insights of Dahood, he also engages in a critical evaluation of Dahood's approach. In this process, he suggests the need for several controlling factors which he considers necessary for providing a more careful and cautious perspective to evaluating and adopting the conclusions of Dahood.70 Dahood tends to downplay the value of the vocalization of the Massoretic tradition; instead he turns to toe resources of Ugaritic and other Northwest Semitic languages to elucidate toe meaning of toe Hebrew text. Dahood thinks that toe Massoretic vocalization often is erroneous and therefore is not always of much value for interpretation.71 However, while Craigie does not ignore the important and relevant contribution of these cognate languages to understanding toe Hebrew language, neither is he willing to totally reject toe value of the Massoretic tradition: He believes that it is important and reasonably reliable. In contrast to Dahood, Craigie tries to maintain a balanced perspective, by drawing upon both resources. He applies the results gained from Northwest Semitic languages to toe Hebrew language while at toe same time weighing toe merits of toe suggested vocalization of the Massoretic ____________________________ 69Peter C. Craigie, "Tablets from Ugarit and Their Importance for Biblical Studies," BAR 9/5 (1983) 71. 70Craigie, Psalms, 51-56. 71 Dahood, Psalms I, 1-50, xxi-xxiv. [ Page ] 28 tradition; nevertheless, Craigie puts more weight upon the value of the latter.72 In his critical appraisal of Dahood’s comparative work, Craigie challenges Dahood's reliance upon the hypothesis that there existed a "Canaanite thesaurus," which served as a resource for Ugaritic and Hebrew poets.73 Based upon this hypothesis, Dahood has drawn up a list of approximately 700 parallel word pairs common to both Ugaritic and Hebrew poetry.74 Craigie carefully examines this hypothesis, pointing out some of the difficulties. The main problem with Dahood's theory is the chronological gap between the Ugaritic and Hebrew texts, a gap of possibly two to seven centuries.75 If one agrees with Dahood's proposal, it is difficult to explain why no semantic shift occurred during those several centuries. Craigie feels that Dahood has failed to take serious account of this question.76 As a consequence, he proposes that any comparative study must consider the factor of chronology; a recognition of the chronological problem is a good reminder to scholars to maintain an attitude of caution and reserve in evaluating the results of comparative study. __________________________ 72Craigie, Psalms, 51-52. 73Peter C. Craigie, "Parallel Word Pairs in the Song of Deborah," JETS 20 (1977) 22. 74Craigie, "The Bible and Ugaritic Studies," 65-66. 75Craigie, Psalms, 53. 76Craigie, "The Bible and Ugaritic Studies," 67. [ Page ] 29 Another problem with Dahood's proposal is related to the nature of the literary forms of the texts under consideration. Craigie points out that there are no Ugaritic psalms which can be used to compare with Hebrew psalms.77 Since Dahood gives examples from Ugaritic prose rather than poetry in his list of parallel word pairs, we should have some reservations with Dahood’s hypothesis.78 In his response to Dahood, Craigie suggests two more controlling factors to keep in mind when involved in comparative study. The one factor pertains to geography: it is important to be aware of the geographical and cultural differences between the Ugaritic and Hebrew texts. The kingdom of Ugarit was located in northern Syria whereas the Israelite kingdom existed in the southern region of Palestine. There was obviously no direct cultural influence of one upon the other because the kingdom of Ugarit had ceased to exist before me Israelites settled in Palestine. Consequently, Craigie has difficulty with a view which insists mat the literature of Ugarit had direct influence upon the Hebrew text and is thus necessary for interpreting me Bible.79 The other controlling factor of which to be aware is related to the nature of me Ugaritic texts: many of me documents are incomplete and almost indecipherable. As a consequence, me task of interpretation is a very difficult and complicated process and me conclusions cannot be established with certainty. Craigie believes that one should consider __________________________ 77Craigie, Psalms, 55. 78Craigie, “The Bible and Ugaritic Studies," 67; idem, Psalms, 55. 79Craigie, Psalms, 54-55. [ Page ] 30 carefully the state of the Ugaritic text before putting too much confidence in its relevance for illuminating the Hebrew text.80 In his response to Dahood's hypothesis, Craigie advocates a cautious and careful approach which takes into account certain controlling factors. Craigie does recognize the similarities between Hebrew and Ugaritic parallel word pairs, but he explains this phenomenon differently than Dahood. Craigie believes that any poetic text which uses parallelism in its form will inevitably have parallel word pairs common to other languages. The similarity is even more evident if the languages are closely related. Since Hebrew and Ugaritic are cognate languages it is not surprising that there is resemblance between the word pairs of the respective poetic texts.81 The evidence .. . appears to confirm the initial assumptions, namely that any poetry employing parallelism will tend to contain similar word pairs, and that the percentage of cognate terms in the word pairs will vary in proportion to the linguistic relationship of the respective languages in which the poetry is written. This evidence does not disprove Dahood‘s hypothesis, but it seriously undermines the hypothesis in its present form. Consequently, the utility of the hypothesis for Biblical textual criticism, which is rated very highly by Dahood, should probably be expressed in more cautious terms.82 The apparently close affinity between Ugaritic and Hebrew parallel word pairs does not necessarily support the theory which suggests that the Hebrew poets were directly influenced by Ugaritic or Canaanite poetry. ________________________ 80Ibid., 55. 81Peter C. Craigie, "Deuteronomy and Ugaritic Studies," TB 28 (1977) 165. 82Ibid., 168. [ Page ] 31 Craigie concedes that the existence of a "Canaanite thesaurus" remains a theoretical possibility, but the evidence is not conclusive. He does not disprove Dahood's hypothesis but he does emphasize the hypothetical nature of it.83 2.2.4 Conclusion The focus of this section has been to examine Craigie's understanding of the relationship between the Old Testament and its ancient Near Eastern context., and in particular, his use of comparative studies for interpreting the biblical text. It has become evident that Craigie firmly believes that a good knowledge of the biblical world is essential for comprehending the Old Testament. As a consequence, he has a very positive view of comparative studies and he recognizes their tremendous value for illuminating the biblical account. This belief is demonstrated in his frequent employment of the findings of archaeology and, in particular, in his use of the discoveries of Ugarit in his interpretation of the biblical text. While he engages in this comparative approach, Craigie maintains a conservative posture of caution in evaluating the results. He is aware of the difficulties and dangers involved in comparative study and therefore advocates a careful, balanced approach which applies the principle of caution in interpreting the data. It is clear to Craigie that the ancient Near Eastern environment has had a significant influence upon the Old Testament; this influence is reflected in the many parallels of thought and structure between the literature of the Israelites and that of their neighbours. Craigie believes, ___________________________ 83Craigie, "Parallel Word Pairs in the Song of Deborah," 22. [ Page ] 32 however, that these parallels do not necessarily indicate direct interdependence. The Israelites did not simply borrow from the surrounding nations, but also adapted the forms and motifs of the literature for their own purpose.84 Craigie sees this sort of use in Israel's adaptation of the vassal treaty form to illustrate God's covenant relationship with them, in structuring the book of Deuteronomy. There is definite evidence of influence but Craigie is hesitant about holding a view which sees direct influence and borrowing in everything in the Old Testament; such an attitude would tend to disregard the uniqueness of the Bible as revelation. Craigie continues to maintain his belief in the revelatory character of the Scriptures while he engages in comparative study; this stance of faith, however, does set some limitations upon the extent to which he uses the comparative method. Consequently, Craigie's approach to comparative studies is characterized by a conservative tendency. __________________________ 84Craigie. Psalms, 174. [ Page ] 33 2.3 BIBLICAL CRITICISM The purpose of this section is to explore Peter Craigie's attitude towards and adoption of various higher critical tools in his approach to the Old Testament. First, I will describe Craigie's stance towards the scientific approach to Scripture. This discussion will be followed by an examination of Craigie's employment of the different forms of biblical criticism; each of the various methods will be considered in turn. 2.3.1 The Scientific Approach Craigie's attitude towards the modern scientific approach to biblical study within contemporary scholarship is a very positive one; this disposition is demonstrated in his use of the critical tools. As a conservative scholar he is not afraid to use the various modern methodologies of criticism; in this way, he is more open-minded than some of his conservative colleagues. So often the conservative camp has been on the defensive, engaged in heated debate over the use of the higher critical tools. In Craigie's words, Biblical scholarship has developed the tools for interpretation and understanding the biblical text., but. the tragedy of practice is that all too often the tools themselves become so much the centre of debate that they are rarely actually used.85 ___________________________ 85Craigie, "Role and Relevance," 26. [ Page ] 34 Craigie's positive stance towards the tools of biblical criticism is revealed in his belief that it is a great loss to biblical scholarship if scholars fail to use the tools available because of a controversy over their value. It is obvious that Craigie sees merit in the modern scientific approach to studying the Bible. Craigie's positive assessment of the higher critical method is not made without a recognition of the potential dilemma it presents for the person of faith, whether a Jew or a Christian with a high view of Scripture. Craigie himself comes to the biblical text from a Christian standpoint of faith and is aware of the tension.86 The difficulty is related to the question of naturalistic assumptions implicit in the modern scientific approach; Craigie believes that these assumptions are rooted in Spinoza's critique of revealed religion.87 In an article that he wrote on Spinoza, Craigie poses the problem with two questions: If the higher critical method of studying the Bible found its initial expression within the framework of a critique of revealed religion, does that fact bind the method inextricably to the critique, or is the method per se neutral? And, related to this question, were there certain implicit assumptions in the method which by their very nature contributed to the subsequent decline in the authority of the Bible?88 ____________________________ 86Craigie, Old Testament, 10. 87Craigie, "Influence of Spinoza," 27-32. 88Ibid., 27. [ Page ] 35 In this article, Craigie seems to take the view that the scientific method is not per se neutral although often it is believed to be neutral.8? The method presupposes that "the Bible is essentially a human book, a product of the human imagination. As such, it becomes liable to the most thorough investigation along the lines of natural science."90 Craigie is aware of the dilemma that this presupposition presents for a person of faith who affirms the Bible as divine revelation. Do these naturalistic assumptions implicit, in the scientific method invalidate its use for the biblical scholar of faith? A second question is related to the first. Is it possible to employ the tools of higher criticism without adopting the naturalistic assumptions behind them? Craigie's positive assessment of the scientific method and his employment of its critical tools seem to indicate a negative response to the former question and a positive response to the latter question. Craigie, however, has not solved the dilemma; in fact, he believes that the tension will always remain because of the very nature of Scripture as revelation. The Bible is God's revelation mediated in human form.?1 __________________________ 89Ibid. 90 Ibid., 30. 91Ibid., 31. I have already explicated Craigie's view of biblical revelation in the first part of this chapter. The focus of this section is on Craigie's positive evaluation and use of the critical tools while he continues to maintain a high view of Scripture. Craigie's perspective of faith affects his use of the critical tools; he employs them with certain reservation. At the same time, his employment of the critical tools, in a sense, affects his view of the Scriptures. The Bible is written by humans and can therefore be subject to scientific investigation. Thus, the two perspectives are interrelated and mutually influence each other. [ Page ] 36 The assumption (or belief) that the source of the work is God, though its; mediation is human, means that scientific method is employed with certain limitations.92 In as much as the mediation of Scripture is human, Craigie considers the scientific method of studying the biblical document as a valid approach. But he appropriates the scientific method with some caution; his stance of faith places certain restraints upon the extent of his application of biblical criticism to interpreting the Old Testament. Although there is a dilemma, he has a positive attitude towards the use and value of higher criticism in biblical scholarship. For Christian and Jewish students of the Hebrew Scriptures, the recognition of the dividing line between the objective academic approach and the confessional approach of faith is an important one. The two perspectives and approaches need not be seen as opposed or antagonistic to one another, but as complementary approaches. The tension remains yet both approaches are necessary and in different ways help illuminate the meaning of the biblical text.. Thus, Craigie's attitude towards the use of higher critical tools to interpret the Bible is very positive. 2.3.2 Religious Perspective Since the Bible was formed within the community of faith and has been accepted as God's revelation to them, Craigie asserts that an approach to biblical studies which fails to be sensitive to the religious perspective of _________________________ 92Craigie, Deuteronomy, 77. 93Craigie, Old Testament, 327. [ Page ] 37 the biblical account, a perspective which presumes the existence of God, will miss an important dimension in their interpretation of the Scriptures. Whether the object of study be the Old Testament or the Qur’an, a method which by definition excludes a "God- hypothesis" is failing to account in some fashion for a central belief in the religion under examination.94 One characteristic of Craigie's own approach to the Old Testament is the fact that in the process of interpretation, he takes into account the "God- hypothesis" of the Scriptures which has so significantly shaped the biblical account. He believes that this approach is very important and therefore it is a fundamental aspect of his method of biblical study. 2.3.3 Critical Tools Craigie's approach to the Old Testament can be characterized as conservative (as has already become evident in this study). This characteristic feature applies equally to his stance towards biblical criticism. He adopts a moderately cautious approach in using the higher critical tools. He uses the scientific method but does not hesitate to dissent from the generally accepted conclusions of modern scholarship. Craigie describes this approach in the preface to his introductory textbook on the Old Testament: I have tried to retain a balanced perspective, indicating both sides of the issues and attempting to be fair to both parties. Where I have erred, I should warn the reader that. it. is probably in being too cautious and conservative, unwilling to go along with every new trend in scholarly research.95 ____________________________ 94Craigie, "Influence of Spinoza," 32. 95Craigie. Old Testament, 10. [ Page ] 38 Craigie readily concedes that his approach leans towards a conservative slant rather than extremist in contentious and debatable issues; his conclusions tend to be tentative when it comes to difficult questions.96 Craigie believes that it is important for biblical scholars to recognize the hypothetical aspect of the scholarly endeavour; there is a place for acknowledging the "role of the hypothesis" in biblical research.97 In this way, Craigie attempts to bring a balanced perspective to the task of biblical interpretation; he avoids radical conclusions. Another positive and very distinctive aspect of Craigie's approach is his continual interaction with scholarship holding to differing positions and beliefs from his own. As a conservative scholar, he does not ignore or isolate himself from the mainstream of contemporary scholarship; rather he moves fully and freely within this sphere. This is evident in his broad knowledge of the various theories and alternative positions which is reflected in his commentaries. Craigie does not maintain his own position and interpretation of the biblical text without presenting other points of view. In this way he is very balanced and fair in his approach to biblical scholarship. It is Craigie's belief that it is essential to read and interact with whom one disagrees. In this regard, he says: For however one may disagree with the "critics", there is no substitute for reading their works. And whether one likes them or not Wellhausen and Gunkel lose something of their impact and challenge when reduced to potted summaries.98 __________________________ 96Ibid., 39. 97Ibid., 126; idem, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," TSF Bulletin 47 (1967) 1-6. 98Craigie, Review of The Word Becoming Flesh, 107. [ Page ] 39 Craigie is very open-minded and is willing to learn from those with whom he disagrees. This openness is a very positive aspect of Craigie’s attitude towards modern biblical scholarship. There is also an independent streak in Craigie’s approach to biblical studies. While he is in dialogue with the different alternatives and theories of contemporary biblical scholarship, he is not afraid to dissent from the majority opinion.?? If he feels strongly about an issue, he is content to stand alone or in the minority, deviating from mainline contemporary scholarship. This independent spirit is demonstrated in his approach to the study of the Psalms. In his commentary on the Psalms, Craigie lists all the scholars and schools of thought which have influenced him in some way, but he denies being a dedicated disciple of any of the various methods employed in the study of the Psalms.100 In Craigie's words, his perspective "does not stand consciously in any the particular schools or traditions which have been summarized."101 Craigie's tendency towards forming independent conclusions is also illustrated in the fact that he writes his own translations of the Hebrew text of the Bible; this is evidenced in his critical commentaries on the Old Testament.102 Craigie prefers to make up his own mind about the meaning of the Hebrew text. _________________________ 99Craigie, Deuternomy, 20-22. 100Craigie, Psalms, 45-48. 101Ibid., 47 102Craigie, Deuteronomy and Psalms. [ Page ] 40 rather than follow someone else's translation.103 This is another example of Craigie's inclination towards forming independent conclusions in his approach to biblical scholarship. So far this section on biblical criticism has attempted to describe Craigie's basic attitude towards the scientific tools of biblical scholarship. In this attempt, some general characteristics of his perspective on the critical method of approach have been examined. This general description serves as background information for understanding Craigie's use of the different methods and tools of modern biblical criticism; these characteristic features put Craigie's approach in perspective as each kind of criticism is considered in turn. The first method to be examined is textual criticism. 2.3.4 Textual Criticism Textual criticism is a method which attempts to ascertain as closely as possible the text of the original document; this task is accomplished by comparing different readings of various manuscripts. This type of criticism is toe least contentious of all the different forms of biblical criticism for toe more conservative branch of contemporary scholarship.104 Carl E. Armerding identifies the reason for this: "In this field there has been little concern for theological position, and conservative critics generally take their place alongside those of other ___________________________ 103Elizabeth Craigie, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Calgary, Alberta, 17 August 1989. 104Carl Armerding, The Old Testament and Criticism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983) 97. [ Page ] 41 theological persuasions."105 This is true for the conservative scholarship of Peter Craigie; he engages fully in textual criticism when he analyses a biblical passage. He recognizes that there are mistakes present in both the consonantal text and in the Massoretic vocalization.106 His conservative leaning, however, is apparent even in doing textual criticism, in that he puts more weight upon the Massoretic tradition than upon the Septuagint or other manuscripts.107 For example, in his commentary on Ezekiel, Craigie points out the discrepancy in numbers between the Septuagint and the Massoretic text in Ezek 4:5. In this case, he prefers the reading of the Massoretic text and bases his interpretation upon this preference.108 But if the weight of the evidence is such that the reading of the other manuscripts over the Massoretic text is preferred, Craigie will accept the better reading.109 Thus, although Craigie sees merit in the Massoretic text, he is not necessarily tied to it. Craigie makes his textual decision upon careful consideration of the manuscript evidence. 2.3.5 Source Criticism Source criticism is the method which attempts to isolate various literary sources behind the biblical text and this analysis, in turn, raises questions ___________________________ 105lbid., 97. 106Craigie, Psalms, 52. 107Ibid., 52. 108Peter C. Craigie, Ezekiel (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983) 30-31. 109Ibid., 74-75. [ Page ] 42 concerning authorship and date of the Old Testament account.110 Craigie's attitude towards this type of biblical criticism is one of qualified acceptance: he accepts the reality of ancient literary sources and the importance of examining them, yet he is also well aware of the dangers inherent in source criticism and warns against its negative effects for interpreting the Bible, namely, the fragmentation of the biblical text and the questioning of its cohesion. Craigie's view of Scripture compels him to emphasize its essential unity; this emphasis, in turn, qualifies his response to source criticism. Craigie adopts the assumptions of source criticism to the extent that he acknowledges the existence of ancient sources behind the biblical text upon which the biblical writers drew.111 This reality is most obvious in the explicit references to literary sources in the books of Samuel and Kings.112 Craigie also recognizes the probability that there were collections of stories circulating independently before they were included into the biblical canon. The tales of the prophets Elijah and Elisha may be examples of this phenomenon.113 Craigie accepts further the notion of a Deuteronomist (or Deuteronomic Historian) who has been influential in shaping toe biblical account along a Deuteronomic perspective, especially in toe books of _________________________ 110Armerding, The Old Testament and Criticism, 21. 111 Craigie, Old Testament, 139. 1122 Sam 1:18; 1 Kgs 14:19, 29. 113Craigie, Old Testament, 139. [ Page ] 43 Joshua through Kings.114 Craigie does not believe that the Deuteronomist was a single source or person but rather a school of thought within Israel. Although he recognizes the difficulty of determining the identity of the Deuteronomist. he discerns a theological perspective in these writings which is distinctively Deuteronomic in influence.115 The theory of a Deuteronomist is an important topic within the discipline of source criticism; it is a concern for source critics when they are trying to identify the different sources and their distinctive theologies. Consequently, Craigie believes that a biblical critic must carefully consider and evaluate the theory of sources when analyzing the biblical text.116 While Craigie adopts source hypotheses to some extent, he has some reservations about the value of engaging in source criticism. He is acutely aware of the problematic effect of becoming too obsessed with sources: it tends to fragment the text and undermine the unity of the Bible.117 Craigie describes the problem as follows: The danger of this pursuit is that the search for sources may blind us to the finished product that we now have and the collection of books as a whole. If we fail to see the overall structure of this finished product, then we will have missed the entire point of the Pentateuch.118 _____________________________ 114Ibid., 139-42. 115Ibid., 142. 116Ibid., 118-19. 117Ibi., 119. 118Ibid. [ Page ] 44 The problem with source criticism is that it tends to lose sight of the whole, of the finished product.119 Craigie contends for an approach which is concerned with analyzing the final form of the biblical text.120 Craigie's understanding of the Old Testament as Scripture causes him to make his theological reflections upon the final and canonical form of the text. He believes that the narrative has been carefully arranged with a theological purpose in mind; it is not a "haphazard collection of ancient works" but rather has been intentionally put together to create a literary whole.121 In Craigie's words, The process of compilation, however, was not a simple scissors-and-paste task; the author (or editor) has carefully chosen data to communicate a particular message, and the message, in turn, though it is rooted in history, has much more to do with religion.122 Craigie contends that it can be a difficult task to understand the theological message of the biblical account if it is not interpreted as a unified whole; this is especially true if one is tracing a theme within the __________________________ 119Ibid., 136. 120Craigie's view is very similar to the approach of canonical criticism, although he never describes his own approach in those terms. Maybe this is due to his desire not to be branded with just one approach or school of thought.. He does look favourably upon the method of canonical criticism and uses it in his own work on the biblical text. 121 Craigie, Old Testament, 105. 122Ibid., 130. [ Page ] 45 Bible. Craigie takes this position in his own study of the theological problem of war in the Old Testament.123 Craigie's emphasis upon analyzing the final form of the biblical narrative has led him to engage in a literary approach to studying the text.124 As a consequence, some of the criteria for identifying various sources take on different significance for a literary critic. For example, the criterion of repetition or supposed duplication of a line as a way of differentiating between certain sources, may be understood as an integral part of the narrative structure from a literary perspective; the repetition may be intentional and this intention may affect interpretation.125 Since Craigie prefers this approach to the biblical narrative, he has some reservations about the value of source criticism. There is another issue associated with source criticism which contributes to Craigie's reticence towards this form of biblical criticism; the problem concerns the dating of the sources. Craigie decribes the issue in the following terms: At this point, scholarly arguments (my own included) tend to become enmeshed in a net of circularity. On the one hand, the view one holds of the history and development of the religion of Israel will depend to a large extent upon one's interpretation of the sources. But, conversely, the interpretation of any particular source will be governed to __________________________ 123Craigie, Problem of War, 97. 124This method of interpretation will be analyzed in more detail below; at present, the focus is on its effect upon Craigie’s view of source criticism. 125Craigie, Deuteronomy, 21, 52. [ Page ] 46 some extent by one's view of the history and development of Israelite religion.126 In this context, Craigie uses Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis as an illustration: Wellhausen's dating of the sources was influenced by the evolutionary view of history, and in particular, by his developmental theory of religion.127 Craigie's point is that the biases of the scholars will affect their interpretation of the sources, which, in turn, will shape their reconstruction of the history of Israel. Since Craigie believes that the documentary hypothesis was developed upon false conceptions of Israel's history and religion, he is concerned that the reader be aware of this problematic aspect of source criticism.128 This is one explanation for his reservation on the subject matter. Once again, his attitude is one of caution. To summerize, Craigie's response to source criticism is one of qualified acceptance: he recognizes a place for source criticism yet he is also aware of some of the problematic aspects and negative effects of the method. To Craigie, the biblical critic must be aware of these limitations and difficulties in employing the method.129 The greatest danger lies in the potential fragmentation of the biblical text; the source critic may lose sight of the whole. Craigie advocates for an approach which focuses upon __________________________ 126Ibid., 60. 127Ibi., 60-61. 128Craigie, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," 2. 129Ibid. [ Page ] 47 the final form of the text; consequently, he has some reservations about the merit of source criticism for interpreting the Old Testament. 2.3.6 Redaction Criticism Redaction criticism is a method which tries to discern the theological perspectives of a biblical writer or redactor by examining the editorial and compositional features employed in the biblical text.130 Craigie's response to this method of biblical criticism is quite favourable; in fact, he contends that redaction criticism is a more positive approach than source or form criticism.131 His assessment of this method is qualified, however, by the fact that it is built upon the assumptions of source and form criticism and it often simply presumes that a biblical writing is not from the period it purports to be.132 As a principle, Craigie always starts by carefully considering the possibility that the date of the composition of a biblical text may be near the time which it describes; this approach is characteristic of his conservative stance. Craigie's starting point is one which takes a positive view of the biblical account, in contrast to the working principle which seems to characterize modern biblical scholarship, namely the principle of radical doubt.133 Craigie's approach is to begin by taking the biblical witness seriously; the text may be a __________________________ 130Richard N. Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981) 165-66. 131Craigie, Deuteronomy, 21. 132Ibid. 133Ibid., 22. [ Page ] 45 product of the time period to which it refers, unless the weight of the evidence is such that it leads one to different conclusions. This approach is evidenced in his employment of redaction criticism. Craigie readily acknowledges the presence of editorial or redactional features in the composition of the Old Testament.134 The editorial process took place some time in the period of fluidity before the biblical books were standardized and given canonical status.135 Because of the antiquity of the Bible, Craigie concedes that we may not have the exact words of each biblical author: yet we can be be fairly certain that the substance of the biblical message is preserved accurately.136 This process of compilation and preservation was probably undertaken by a number of redactors, possibly the disciples of a certain prophet whose message they were conserving. In the book of Ezekiel, for example, there is internal evidence of editorial reworking and amplification of the interpretation of Ezekiel's message; Craigie is uncertain as to whether this revision was done by Ezekiel or his disciples.137 In Craigie's commentary on the book of Deuteronomy, he notes that editorial revisions and additions are to be expected considering the history of the book, but he asserts that these redactional modifications and insertions do not undermine the essential unity of the book.138 In Craigie's words, "exactly __________________________ 134Craigie, Ezekiel, 275. 135Craigie, Old Testament, 36. 136Ibid., 36-37; idem, Deuteronomy, 29, n. 31. 137Craigie, Ezekiel, 107. 138Craigie, Deuteronomy, 24, n. 17. [ Page ] 49 because Deuteronomy was a part of a living tradition, one would expect it to be revised and updated from time to time, in respect to syntax, morphology, and orthography."139 Consequently, Craigie's position allows for editorial revisions in the biblical account. Craigie does not inevitably follow the scholarly consensus regarding editorial matters; if the evidence is such that it does not necessarily compel one to detect a later hand in the composition of the biblical text, Craigie will dissent from majority opinion. He is not afraid to disagree with the generally accepted view of contemporary scholarship, even if he is in the minority; this characteristic aspect of Craigie's scholarship applies equally to his approach to redaction criticism. For example, many scholars assert that the essence of Micah chapters 4-7 come from a later period than Micah.140 Craigie responds to this assertion in his commentary on Micah: Such judgements are very hard to make, given the paucity of evidence and its subjective character. In general, the remarks that follow by way of interpretation are written from the perspective that all seven chapters, with a few minor exceptions, can reasonably be ascribed to Micah, a position held by a number of contemporary scholars.141 Craigie holds to this position because he believes that the evidence is such that it does not require him to view these chapters as a late addition to the book. He does concede however, that Mic 4:1-5 and 7:8-20 are ______________________ 139Ibid., 67. 140Peter C. Craigie, Twelve Prophets: Volume 2 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985) 2. 141 Ibid., 3. [ Page ] 50 questionable; he admits that the latter passage is most likely a later postscript.142 To summarize, Craigie engages in redaction criticism of the biblical text, yet with a note of caution. On the one hand, he acknowledges the editorial revisions of the biblical text, but on the other hand, he does not necessarily accept the conclusions of scholarly opinion regarding late redactional insertions. As a principle, Craigie begins his examination by assuming that the biblical account comes from the period it describes; if redaction criticism provides conclusive evidence against this assumption, Craigie will follow the evidence where it leads him and will revise his position. This is a characteristic feature of Craigie's approach in his application of the tools of biblical criticism to the Old Testament. 2.3.7 Form Criticism Form criticism is a method of biblical interpretation which analyzes the typical literary forms and genre of a text, with a focus on the oral, preliterary stage of the writing; by implication, form criticism tries to reconstruct the preliterary history of the written form.143 Craigie's response to form criticism is fairly positive although he is always aware of its; weaknesses and limitations; this positive attitude is especially reflected in his commentary on the Psalms.144 This favourable evaluation of form criticism however is reflected more in his later work; in his ________________________ 142Ibid. 143Armerding, Old Testament and Criticism. 44; Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism, 71-73. 144Craigie, Psalms, 36, 45-48. [ Page ] 51 earlier writings, lie was more critical of the approach and questioned its validity.145 This fact seems to be an indication of some development in his perspective: over his academic career he became more open to the method and saw its merits more clearly. The changes in his thought will be considered in this examination. Craigie asserts that form criticism, with its two-fold emphasis upon oral tradition and the form and function of biblical literature, is a "fruitful’' approach to the study of the Old Testament.146 He believes that there was an oral stage during which the biblical stories were told and retold for generations before they were finally written down. For example, Craigie claims that the particular stories about the different judges in the book of Judges were first related in oral form.147 Many of the poems of the Psalter were probably initially composed orally as well.148 Craigie also contends that there are certain types of literature in the Bible which were written to serve a functional purpose. Many of the Psalms for example, were created with a liturgical function to be used in Israel's worship. Consequently, a study of the different kinds of forms and their intended function can be an insightful method of investigation of the biblical texts.149 ___________________________ 145Craigie, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," 3-4. 146Craigie, Old Testament, 119. 147Ibid., 133. 148Craigie, Psalms, 26. 149Craigie, Old Testament, 119. [ Page ] 52 Craigie's employment of form critical analysis is best illustrated in his commentary on the Psalms. In the introduction, he describes his approach to the Psalms as one which works within a broad form critical framework. He acknowledges that his approach has been partially influenced by the views of certain form critics, in particular, by Gunkel, but Craigie's perspective is not limited to one school of thought.150 I have followed the broad principles of form-criticism set. down by Gunkel, at least in so far as I have recognized the importance of attempting to classify Psalms according to their type and to set. them in particular life situations. But my system of classification, though rooted in Gunkel, is more flexible, and it has been necessary at times to modify the terminology describing the various types.151 Craigie attempts to categorize the Psalms into different types, but he does not necessarily use the same terms as Gunkel.152 A greater difference between the two scholars lies in Craigie's emphasis upon the functional aspect of the Psalms. Craigie believes that a study which focuses upon the function rather than the type or form of a Psalm is a far more fruitful approach.153 The essential commonality between the members of any given type lies in function, not in form and structure. And thus a method is required which is sensitive to the functional study of the Psalms, but takes seriously the ___________________________ 150Craigie, Psalms, 45-47. 151Ibid., 47. 152The following are a few examples of Craigie's modified terms for the different types: A Meditation (Ps 36); A Royal Wedding Song (Ps 45); A Psalm of Protection (Ps 7). (Craigie, Psalms. 7-3) 153Ibid., 47; idem. Old Testament, 213. [ Page ] 53 particularities and peculiarities of poetic and literary structure in the analysis of particular Psalms.154 Craigie tries to implement this functional perspective in his analysis of the Psalms. The focus upon the function of the Psalms in a particular context requires one to determine the setting of each Psalm. Therefore Craigie stresses the importance of finding the Sitz im Leben when examining the Psalms.155 This is an important aspect of Craigie's form critical analysis. Although Craigie has a fairly positive view of form criticism, there seems to have been some development and changes in his attitude towards this type of criticism. In 1967, Craigie published his first article entitled "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism" in which he presented a significant critique of form criticism and oral tradition. Although he conceded that, "in principle the method had its values," there were a. number of problems which called the validity of the approach into question.156 First of all, Craigie wondered whether a method which originated in the formal analysis of German folklore could so easily be reapplied to Semitic literature like the Old Testament.157 Craigie also claimed that the judgements made in formal analysis are entirely subjective in nature. _______________________ 154Craigie, Psalms, 48. 155Ibid., 47. 156Craigie, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," 3. 157Ibid. [ Page ] 54 Form criticism is a circular method. The "sitz im leben" is reconstructed on the basis of the material which is said to reflect a certain type of setting: then the reconstructed setting is used to interpret or re-interpret the contents or related material. The method is both circular and subjective.158 Craigie also argued that there is no proof that "oral tradition existed alone without a parallel written form from the earliest stage."159 Because of these problems, Craigie concluded that form criticism cannot be considered as a fully scientific method, although it has some value when applied to the Psalms.160 Craigie's response to form criticism in his later work reflects a more open and positive attitude towards it. This seems to be an indication of development in his position. Yet even then, he continues to recognize its limitations and is somewhat cautious about its use. He claims that the attempt to try to reconstruct the original pre-literary setting of a certain type of Psalm can be a very difficult and dubious task. As a result, Craigie feels that proposals like the autumn New Year Festival or the Covenant festivals as plausible settings for certain Psalms are questionable and "elusive" in character.161 Craigie also recognizes the potential danger of becoming so engrossed in form-critical investigation that the method becomes an end in itself. Thus, the formal analysis of poetry is a useful and necessary task, though it cannot be an end in itself; ___________________________ 158Ibid. 159Ibid., 4. 160Ibid. 161 Craigie, Psalms, 48. [ Page ] 55 it must be a means towards the end of appreciating, understanding and ultimately utilizing the Psalms.162 The form-critical method is a helpful tool in analyzing the biblical text, especially the poetry of the Psalms, but it cannot be the only approach to interpreting the Scriptures. Craigie recognizes the important aspects of form-critical analysis; this appreciation is evident in his own employment of the method in his work. His preference, however, is for an approach which focuses on the final form of the written text. He asserts that "it is the written word, rattier than the historically vague event lying behind the word, which constitutes Holy Scripture.”163 Craigie's preference for analyzing the canonical text will be observed in his use of literary or rhetorical criticism of the biblical narrative. 2.3.8 Literary Criticism Craigie favours an approach to the Old Testament which focuses upon the biblical text as the finished product; this preference has already become apparent in his attitude towards certain types of biblical criticism. Any critical method which moves away from analyzing the text as we have it, although it may have its; merits, is less valuable and useful than an approach which concentrates upon interpreting the final form of the canonical text. Thus, it is not surprising that Craigie has a great appreciation for the more recent emphasis within contemporary biblical scholarship upon an approach which analyzes the Bible from a strictly _______________________ 162Ibid., 36. 163Craigie, Problem of War, 50. [ Page ] 56 literary perspective; tills method focuses upon the biblical text as a literary whole, analyzing it as a piece of literature.164 Literary criticism is an umbrella term for a type of biblical interpretation which has many derivative sub-disciplines; each of these reflect different, emphases while operating on the same basic assumptions of a literary perspective. Consequently, there are many terms used to express these related forms of literary criticism. Craigie, for example, uses the following terminology: Literary Analysis, New Criticism, Werkinterpretation. Narrative Study, New Stylistics, Rhetorical Criticism and Structural Analysis.165 Craigie’s positive evaluation of this literary approach to the biblical text is due to "its refreshing stress on the study of literature as a finished product, rather than emphasizing the antecedents to the extant form.”166 Since Craigie sees tremendous value in tills literary method, he uses it quite extensively in his own analysis of the Old Testament. Literary critics approach the Bible as a piece of literature; this literary perspective is thus concerned with plot, theme, characterization, style, structure and various techniques and devices used in the composition of the biblical narrative.167 More specifically, Craigie engages in rhetorical analysis of the biblical text, an approach which pays close attention to literary techniques like repetition, structural forms and __________________________ 164Craigie. Old Testament, 120. 165Ibid., 120; idem, Deuteronomy, 7-8; idem. Psalms, 48. 166Craigie, Deuteronomy, 7. 167Craigie, Old Testament, 120. [ Page ] 57 patterns, parallelism, motifs, chiasm, simile, metaphors, formulae, etc.168 In Craigie’s commentary on the Psalms, he claims that a rhetorical analysis of the Psalms in terms of their distinctive literary structure is essential to Psalm studies and must be done before undertaking a form- critical analysis.169 In this respect, Craigie’s perspective has been influenced by the work of N. H. Ridderbos who employs this method in his study of the Psalms.170 Since this literary analysis takes as its starting point the text as it is, the question pertaining to sources is disregarded as obsolete; in fact, some source critics have identified as signs of different sources that which is considered to be integral to the narrative unit as a whole from a literary perspective. For example, Craigie notes that from a source- critical perspective, Deut 1 1:26-32 and 27:1-26 seem to be secondary insertions into the book, because they seem to disrupt the flow of the biblical narrative.171 But from a literary point of view, these two passages are integral to the structure of the book; they function as a frame around the main section of specific stipulations (Deut 12-26).172 This structural framework in turn sheds light upon the interpretation of the book as a whole. _________________________ 168D. F. Watson, "Rhetorical Criticism," ISBE 4 (1988) 181-82; Craigie, Psalms, 48. 169Craigie, Psalms, 48. 170Ibid. 171Craigie. Deuteronomy, 52. 172lbid., 52, 327. [ Page ] 58 Another example is found in the positioning of the oracles against the foreign nations in the book of Ezekiel. Craigie observes that these chapters, Ezek 25-32, on one level may appear in an odd place, but from a literary perspective they serve "to delay the climax and heighten the tension."173 These examples show that an awareness of the literary features of the biblical narrative can have a tremendous effect upon one's interpretation. Consequently, Craigie believes that literary criticism has much to offer.174 This positive evaluation is demonstrated in his own use of the approach in his work on the Old Testament. 2.3.9 Conclusion The focus of this section has been the examination of Peter Craigie's attitude towards and employment of the scientific tools and methods of biblical criticism in his study of the Old Testament. Of all the different critical approaches, it has become clear that Craigie prefers the one which takes the final form of the biblical text seriously; this is the approach that he personally adopts most frequently in his interpretation of the Scriptures. It has also been demonstrated that as a conservative scholar, Craigie has quite a positive and open-minded attitude towards the various methodologies of higher criticism and he uses the different types of criticism to some extent in his work. There is some evidence however, of development and change in his view of certain types of criticism during the course of his academic ___________________________ 173Craigie, Old Testament, 167. 174Peter C. Craigie, Review of Jeremiah: A Commentary, by Charles L. Feinberg, JBL 103 (1984) 647. [ Page ] 59 career. He was more critical of source criticism, form criticism and oral tradition in his earlier writings, emphasizing their hypothetical nature; he concluded that these methods could not be accepted readily as scientific.175 Craigie seems to have changed his mind, however, because later he does refer to these critical tools as scientific and he considers their value in a more positive light.176 Craigie's favourable assessment of the scientific approach to Scripture is somewhat qualified, however, in light of the potential dilemma it presents from the standpoint of faith. There is inevitable tension between the scientific and theological approaches to the biblical text; this dilemma is unavoidable because of the very nature of the biblical text as divine revelation. Yet Craigie advocates a place for the scientific method of interpretation as long as one is aware of its limitations, its hypothetical nature and its naturalistic assumptions. The higher critical tools can be useful and valuable, but they should always be employed with some caution; this careful approach to their usage is due to the ambivalent and tenuous relationship between the scientific and theological perspectives. Craigie tries to maintain a balance between these two approaches in his work; in light of the persistent difficulties, he has been quite successful in attaining this goal. ___________________________ 175Craigie, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," 1-6. 176Craigie, Old Testament, 102; idem, Deuteronomy, 77; idem, "Influence of Spinoza," 31. [ Page ] 6O 2.4 TREATMENT OF DIFFICULT ISSUES FOR CONSERVATIVE SCHOLARSHIP The objective of this section is to concentrate primarily upon the way in which Peter Craigie deals with issues which have been traditionally problematic for conservative scholarship., such as, the debate about authorship and dating of biblical books and questions of historicity. It will be demonstrated that although Craigie’s conclusions are fairly conservative, his attitude is one which is open to the current proposals of contemporary scholarship; he is willing to modify his position if the weight of the evidence would dictate a change. His is a balanced, cautious approach; his tendency is to take the middle ground between two extreme positions on contentious issues. 2.4.1 Authorship and Date In Craigie's understanding, the question of authorship of the biblical books is a secondary question; the primary concern of the biblical writers is the subject matter and not the identity of the author. Consequently, neither should it be our main concern. The matter of authorship was held to be less important in biblical times than it is in the modern world . . . What was written seems to have been considered more important than the identity of the writer.177 ___________________________ 177Craigie, Old Testament, 116-17. [ Page ] 61 Although the question of authorship is a natural and significant issue for the modern reader, it must be remembered that it should not be the central concern, nor can it be, given the nature of the biblical text. It is primarily a theological account whose significance lies in its message about God and his relationship to the world and his people. It has already been demonstrated that Craigie recognizes the possibility of several sources, both oral and literary, behind the present biblical text. He is also aware of editorial shaping and modification of the narrative in the long process of preservation and canonization. Consequently, the question of authorship is a complex issue with no simple solutions. As a general rule, however, Craigie is quite conservative in his dating; he tends to date the writing of the different biblical accounts quite near to the events they describe.178 He thinks that the general substance of the message goes back to the original prophet, but in most cases, his disciples recorded and edited his message. The process of editing and updating the text continued until it was fixed in canonical form, as each new generation reinterpreted the message and made it relevant for their own time.179 The following section will illustrate Craigie's approach by giving specific examples. 2.4.1.1 The Pentateuch It is Craigie's assertion that the five books of Moses cannot be dated with certainty because the question of authorship of the books is not clear; _______________________ 178Ibid., 125. 179Craigie, Deuteronomy, 29, n. 31, 67; idem, Psalms, 40-41. [ Page ] 62 strictly speaking they are anonymous works.180 The five books were probably written., compiled and edited by several persons; Ezra may have been the final editor in the long history of the Pentateuch.181 Craigie does contend., however, that Moses may have written parts of the text of the Pentateuch. . . . given the stature of Moses in the Hebrew tradition and the textual traditions concerning his writing, it would seem foolish, a priori, to deny the possibility that there may be a "Mosaic base" to the literature of the Pentateuch. Certainly it cannot be proved, by literary or historical means, that this or that passage was written by Moses. On the other hand, the possibility, indeed probability, that there is a solid Mosaic foundation for parts of the Pentateuch is not unreasonable.182 Craigie notes that the person(s) responsible for the writing or editing of the Pentateuch certainly wanted the readers to believe that Moses was directly involved in some of its writing. On the other hand, the Pentateuch itself makes no direct claim to Mosaic authorship; if this had been a significant issue, one might have expected the text to be more explicit.183 Therefore, it is best to take the Pentateuch as a whole as an anonymous writing with a Mosaic base. ___________________________ 180Craigie, Old Testament, 105-6. 181Ibid., 117, 122. 182Ibid., 123. 183lbid. [ Page ] 63 2.4.1.2 Deuteronomy Although the book of Deuteronomy is part of the Pentateuch, it. is relevant to consider it separately in relation to the question of date and authorship, since Craigie devoted much time to writing on this book. Craigie asserts that Deuteronomy can reasonably be dated to the Mosaic period. Although this proposition cannot be proven with absolute certainty, the assumption that the book dates to the time of Moses or shortly after is very plausible.184 Craigie comes to this conclusion for two reasons. First, since the form of Deuteronomy is patterned after the second-millennium treaty format, it is reasonable to date the book to the Mosaic age.185 Second, Israel’s interpretation of the history of its religious tradition is such that there is no reason to doubt that. Deuteronomy is dated to the time it describes.186 In Craigie’s words, Both the form of the book and the religious significance of that form make it not. unreasonable to assume that the book comes from the time of Moses or shortly thereafter; the nature of the evidence, however, is not such that the date can be either proved or disproved.187 The question of authorship is another issue which cannot be proven. Craigie states that the editor of the final shape of the text is unknown but it is possible to attribute the substance of the message to Moses himself. __________________________ 184Craigie, Deuteronomy, 27-28, 54. l85Ibid., 27. 186Ibid., 28. 187Ibid. [ Page ] 64 It is important to stress that "authorship" of a book such as Deuteronomy has to do with the substance (viz., the "words that Moses spoke") and not primarily with the mechanical process of writing or recording. The relationship between the substance and the written form is, in the nature of the evidence, outside the scope or ability of literary-critical investigation.188 In Craigie's opinion, Mosaic authorship cannot be proven or disproven, but the view that Deuteronomy records the core of his message is a very plausible one. In making these assertions regarding the date and authorship of Deuteronomy, Craigie is going against the majority opinion of contemporary scholarship which dates the composition of the book to the seventh century B. C. But Craigie holds to a conservative position because he believes that the weight of the evidence is such that it. supports his conclusions. 2.4.1.3 Isaiah Besides the Pentateuch, there is no other book which has evoked so much debate and controversy among conservatives in the last century than the book of Isaiah. The critical question concerns its unity: are there one, two or three Isaiahs and when were these parts written? This section will focus upon Craigie's response to these questions. Craigie stands in agreement with critical scholarship in that he recognizes that Isaiah divides into three main parts; from a literary examination of the style, perspective, language and subject matter of the book, the evidence seems to point in this direction.189 This threefold _______________________ 188Ibid., 29, n. 31. 189Craigie, Old Testament, 150-52. [ Page ] 65 division, however, neither proves or disproves the current scholarly hypothesis of multiple authorship of Isaiah; nevertheless, Craigie concedes that the evidence is such that the proposal does not seem unreasonable.190 In his analysis, Craigie makes a fair presentation of the arguments for and against multiple authorship of Isaiah. Although he does not explicitly state his own position on the contentious issue, he does not deny the validity of the current hypothesis of contemporary scholarship. He even appears to be open to the possibility that the theory of multiple authorship is correct.1?1 Craigie is aware, however, of the danger involved in an approach which focuses exclusively upon multiple sources: the overall unity of the whole book is lost. In the detailed analysis of the book, it has been difficult to retain a vision of the whole book. Therefore, if one accepts the hypothesis that there were at least two "Isaiahs," it is important to recognize that the author or editor of the book that has survived has done nothing explicit to confirm that view ... it is essential to recognize that the book of Isaiah in its present form is presented, apparently deliberately, as a single and unified work.192 If this was the editor's intention, Craigie asserts that the book should be read and understood as a unified whole. In this way, Craigie advocates a canonical reading of the book, that is, studying it in its final form. If _________________________ 190Ibid., 153. 191Ibid., 155-56. One reason for the deliberate ambiguity of Craigie’s own position may be due to his desire to avoid taking sides on a contentious issue, especially in an introductory textbook to the Old Testament. He wants to be fair to all perspectives. 192Ibid., 155-56. [ Page ] 66 there ever was more than one "Isaiah," the book was preserved and canonized as a whole; it is in this received form that it is intended to be read.193 As a consequence, Craigie claims that "questions of authorship and background" must be considered as "secondary questions."194 It is probably for this very reason that he does not advocate a definite position on the issue of unity and authorship of Isaiah; it is a relatively minor concern for him.195 instead, he is more troubled about the potential fragmentation of the biblical text; this is his main concern with the theory of multiple authorship. Thus, he favours a canonical approach to the book which analyzes it as a whole.196 Craigie bypasses the question of authorship and instead focuses upon a particular perspective for studying the book of Isaiah, namely, interpreting it as a unified whole. 2.4.1.4 Daniel Daniel is another biblical book which has generated much scholarly debate in the last century concerning its date of composition. The question of dispute is whether it was composed in the sixth century B. C. ___________________________ 193Ibid. 194Ibid. 195Craigie's approach is quite different from that of some of his conservative colleagues regarding this contentious issue; it is not a critical sore point for him. As a conservative scholar he is very broad-minded and willing to consider the possible validity of the majority opinion of contemporary scholarship on this question. 196In this way, Craigie's reason for taking the unity of the book seriously is different from the traditional conservative reason; the critical issue for Craigie is not authorship but rather the danger of fragmentation. [ Page ] 67 as the book seems to suggest, or in the second century B. C.; most conservatives argue for the earlier date, whereas the majority of modern scholarship prefers the later date. The hotly disputed question has polarized the camps within biblical scholarship. The reason for the controversy lies in the predictive value of the earlier dating: If it is a sixth century document it accurately predicts events which happened in the second century. Consequently, the problem of date has moved from a strictly academic question to the realm of theology; the plausibility of predictive prophecy is the key issue. For some conservatives, to assign a date to the book later than the time of Daniel is interpreted as an attack upon the core of orthodox faith; it discredits the witness of the Bible as divine revelation.197 In light of this controversy, Craigie's position on the question is interesting. As his usual practice, he outlines the main problem and makes a fair presentation of the arguments of both sides.198 Although he recognizes the complexity and difficulty of the question, he again emphasizes that this question is not the primary concern of the author of the book; there is no attempt within the biblical document to indicate its date and authorship.199 It may help, in retaining perspective, to recall that the writer of this book did not see fit to specify the date at which it was written, and this observation warns against the elevation of minor issues to major proportions. The essence of the issue of the book’s dating can be summarized as ___________________________ 197Craigie, Old Testament, 246. 198Ibid., 244-49. 199lbid., 245-46. [ Page ] 68 follows: The book does not clearly specify the date of its writing, the internal evidence is complex, the majority of modern scholars date the book at a later period (second century B. C.); therefore, a firm dating of the book remains debatable and difficult.200 Craigie contends that modern biblical scholarship has made the question of authorship and date a major issue when it actually should be a minor one; if it is not a central concern of the biblical writer, neither should it be for us. In fact, Craigie believes that we may miss the real message of the book while we are embroiled in the tangles and complexity of the debate. In his words, "We do not grasp the book's relevance by fighting the battles of historical criticism."201 Therefore he issues a warning against this potential danger. Craigie does give his own position on the question: the book of Daniel is an anonymous work and it probably dates to a time later than the sixth century but earlier than the second.202 The ambiguity and complexity of the problem make it difficult to be more definite. Craigie takes a middle-ground position between two extremes; this is so characteristic of his cautious and moderate approach. 2.4.1.5 Other Prophetic Books In respect to authorship and date of the major and minor prophets, Craigie approaches the issue with the following basic assumption: The _________________________ 200Ibid., 246-47. 201Ibid., 248. 202Ibid., 245-46. [ Page ] 69 main substance of the prophetic message of the respective books can be reasonably regarded as authentic to the prophet to which it is attributed and the writing of the document occurred close to the time of the prophet, either by the prophet himself or by his disciples.203 In Craigie's view, there are at least two stages involved before the prophetic book reaches its final form: "First, a prophetic message was delivered 'live’ to a specific audience in a particular place, and later a record or summary of it was put down in writing."204 During the second stage, the written documents; were compiled, arranged and edited by certain redactors or disciples over st period of time until the book reached its final form.205 Therefore, the prophets; are not necessarily the primary writers of their books; rather, their books are a record of their prophetic preaching.206 To illustrate Craigie's position, his treatment of the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel will be considered. Contrary to the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars, Craigie believes that the bulk of the book of Jeremiah can be dated near the time of the prophet. The book in its present form with its historical appendix (chapter 52) may have been compiled within a decade or so of the prophet's; death although it should be noted that the final form of the book may have remained fluid for some time.207 ___________________________ 203lbid., 163, 168-69: idem, Ezekiel, 69. 204Craigie. Old Testament, 169. 205Ibid., 169. 206Peter C. Craigie, The Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1984) 1. 207Craigie, Old Testament, 163. [ Page ] 70 Craigie asserts that the message of the book is authentic to Jeremiah but the state of the written text remained in flux for some time. There probably existed several editions of the book, each with slight variations, before it reached its fixed form.208 Craigie approaches the book of Ezekiel in the same way: The substance of the message belongs to the prophet and either Ezekiel himself or his disciples compiled the written document. However, Craigie allows for the possibility of editorial notes, additions and reworking of the text in the process of compilation.209 2.4.1.6 The Psalms of David Traditionally the Davidic Psalms of the Psalter have been interpreted as composed by king David. Contrary to this view, Craigie claims that most of the Psalms are anonymous and this anonymity, in turn, makes the dating of the individual Psalms a difficult task.210 Craigie concedes that a core of the Davidic Psalms may have been composed by king David himself, but the collection as a whole most likely did not originate with him.211 The ambiguity of authorship lies in the preposition lamed. It is possible to translate the preposition in a variety of ways for, by, to, with reference to, concerning, about, for the use of.212 Traditionally, it has been translated as "by David," implying authorship. ____________________________ 208Ibid. 209lbid., 169; idem, Ezekiel, 69, 107. 210Craigie, Psalms, 35. 211 Ibid., 35; idem. Old Testament, 212. 212Craigie, Psalms, 33-34. [ Page ] 71 But it is possible to interpret it as a collection "belonging to David" or "dedicated to David."213 Craigie takes the latter understanding as the more likely one. The Davidic collection probably became associated with David because he was known as the patron of Israel's psalmody; his reputation arose from his association with music and worship.214 The writer of Samuel calls him the "sweet psalmist of Israel."215 Therefore, it is not surprising that many of the Psalms were dedicated to David. Thus, although Craigie believes that some of the Psalms can be traced back to king David, he prefers to see them as anonymous. 2.4.1.7 Conclusion These examples have demonstrated that the moderately conservative tendency which characterizes Craigie's scholarship is evident in his response to the question of authorship and date. This same characteristic is also prevalent in his position on the question of historicity. 2.4.2 Historicity Craigie's position on the question of historicity of the Bible is similar to his view regarding the date and authorship debate: the question of historicity is not the central issue of concern for the biblical writers. The nature of the biblical text as divine revelation is such that it cannot be an __________________________ 213lbid., 35. 214Ibid., 35; idem, Old Testament, 212. 2152 Sam 23:1. [ Page ] 72 historical account in the modern sense of the word.216 Its primary purpose and message is theological rather than historical; it presents a theological interpretation of history.217 Though it contains history, the Old Testament is not a history book; rather, it recounts the story of a nation’s life with God, thus penetrating the realm of faith.218 The fact that it is not. a history text, does not mean the events described in the Bible did not happen; they did take place, but the focus of the biblical account is on God’s role in the experience of Israel. Thus, the history of Israel "revealed what God had done for his people; it intimated his will."219 Consequently, the Hebrew conception of history allows for the inbreaking of divine transcendence; the purpose of the biblical account is to recall the "act. of God, which by its very nature is transhistorical in relation to a modern concept, of history."220 Since the Old Testament is a story of faith from the perspective of the biblical writers, its very nature falls outside the realm of history in the modern scientific sense. By implication, the question of historicity regarding the biblical material should not be our primary concern in approaching the text. In this way, Craigie tries to diffuse the focus of attention on the __________________________ 216History in the modern sense is one of progress, a sequence of causes and effects within an enclosed system in which there is no room for divine intervention. (Craigie, Deuteronomy, 39-40.) 217Craigie, Old Testament, 256. 218Ibid., 31. 219Craigie, Deuteronomy, 40. 220Ibid. [ Page ] 73 question of historicity in biblical scholarship. The following examples will illustrate Craigie's stance on the question. 2.4.2.1 The Pentateuch Craigie asserts that the Penta.teu.ch is a religious document written from a perspective of faith and therefore must be interpreted as "theological history."221 He takes seriously its historical elements while recognizing that its primary intention is not to convey history; rather, it is "theological narrative."222 Consequently, the significance and purpose of the creation account is theological rather than historical or scientific.223 In the same way, the book of Deuteronomy is not. primarily a "historical record" which can be verified by the scientific method; rather, it records the message or "words" of Moses to the Israelites.224 Craigie has formed a fairly positive assessment of the historical merit of the patriarchal narratives; he believes that to deny the existence of the partriarchs is too radical.225 Yet he does not hold to this belief dogmatically; Abraham may have been a real person in Israel’s history but this possibility cannot be proven historically.226 As a consequence he ____________________________ 221 Craigie. Old Testament, 107. 222Ibid., 114, 126. 223Ibid., 307. 224Craigie. Deuteronomy, 17, 76. 225Craigie, Old Testament, 259-62. 226Ibid., 50, 261-62. [ Page ] 74 affirms the historicity of the patriarchal narratives with some reservations. Craigie follows the same principle of caution in his evaluation of the Exodus from Egypt. Craigie accepts the biblical account of the Exodus and the Sinai experience as factual events in contrast to some scholars who deny their authenticity.227 Yet he concedes that the history of the biblical material is not "self-evident" and therefore he takes a cautious approach in evaluating the historical data.228 He tries to strike a balance between the two extreme positions: the radical approach which completely doubts the historical authenticity of the biblical narrative and the liberalist approach which simply accepts it at face value. Craigie is aware that this middle approach will not necessarily please either camp. Many scholars and contemporary historians would judge that I have been far too positive and optimistic concerning what can be said about Israel's early history. My position, as I have said before, is conservative, but governed by what I take to be a sensible approach to historical understanding. Yet, even the cautious position adopted here may be disturbing to some — for example, Jewish or Christian readers of a conservative background.229 Craigie is not trying to accommodate either camp, whether conservative or "liberal"; he simply adopts the approach which he believes is the most reasonable and balanced. In the final analysis, Craigie has a very positive __________________________ 227Ibid., 262-65. 228Ibid., 264-65. 229Ibid., 265. [ Page ] 75 view of this early period of the history of Israel although he concedes that it cannot be proven scientifically .230 2.4.2.2 Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther In keeping with his stance on historicity, Craigie approaches the biblical account of Joshua and Judges primarily as religious documents rather than historical narrative. Although they contain historical material, their main purpose is theological.231 Similarly, the book of Ruth is set in the historical framework of the judges of Israel, but its distinctive concern is religious: to teach certain truths about faith through a beautiful and simple love story.232 Craigie treats the book of Esther in a similar way: the story is set historically in a Persian context but its purpose is religious.233 Whether it recounts historical events giving rise to the festival, or whether it was created to give meaning to an already existing festival must remain for the moment the subject of scholarly debate.234 Craigie does not give his own opinion on the subject but the fact that he mentions it shows that he is open to the possible view that the events described in the book of Esther may not have actually happened. Craigie ___________________________ 230Ibid., 262, 265. 231 Ibid., 120-34. 232Ibid., 234. 233 Ibid., 242-4.3. 234lbid., 243. [ Page ] 76 emphasizes the religious character of the book rather than its historical relevance. 2.4.2.3 Jonah The book of Jonah is another biblical narrative which has generated scholarly debate over the question of historicity; the peculiar story about the "big fish" with its miraculous elements has caused some scholars to doubt its historical veracity. Yet, there are many conservatives who believe that the events of the story actually happened. Consequently, there are those who think that Craigie's interpretation of the book is somewhat controversial.235 Although it is conceivable to interpret the book as an historical account. Craigie thinks that this explanation is unlikely.236 He comes to this understanding by analyzing the literary substance and form of the narrative, not by denying the plausibility of miracles. That the unusual or miraculous may indeed happen is not at issue; what is at issue is the nature of the book, its literary type, and hence the appropriate method of interpretation.237 Thus, from his literary analysis of the book, Craigie comes to the conclusion that the story should be interpreted as an "extruded parable"; as a parable, its purpose is to present a moral or religious truth.238 _______________________ 235Allan M. Harman, Review of Twelve Prophets: Volume 1. by Peter Craigie, RTR 44 (1985) 94. 236Craigie, Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, 213; idem. Old Testament, 87. 237Craigie, Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, 213. 238 Ibid., 214; idem. Old Testament, 187. [ Page ] 77 The writer took a real, but virtually unknown, character called Jonah and constructed a parable around that figure to convey a theological message.239 Craigie notes a parallel between the story of Jonah and the parable of the "Good Samaritan": they both end with a question inviting the audience to ponder their meaning.240 Although he acknowledges the "hypothetical nature" of such a proposal, he believes that the book should be interpreted as a parable.241 For Craigie, the question of historicity is not the main issue; rather, it is the literary genre of the book that dictates his position. This is a significant departure from the traditional conservative view. To his more conservative colleagues, he is somewhat controversial in his interpretation. The fact that Craigie deviates from the traditional conservative position demonstrates his openness to other views; he is not afraid to explore new or different ideas. 2.4.2.4 Conclusion The purpose of this section has been to examine the way in which Craigie deals with the questions related to authorship, date and historicity of the biblical narratives, issues which traditionally have been somewhat problematic for conservative scholarship. It has been shown that although Craigie comes to moderately conservative conclusions, he is open to the findings of biblical criticism and he is willing to modify his position if the evidence demands it. Craigie tries to minimize the attention given __________________________ 239Craigie, Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, 213. 240Ibid., 213-14. 241 Ibid., 214. [ Page ] 78 to these hotly debated issues by emphasizing that the primary concern of the biblical text is not over matters of authorship or historicity; since these are secondary questions, we should not. be so preoccupied with them. The central concern should be the theological message of the biblical material. The end result of this kind of approach is that the difficult issues are played down; to Craigie, these questions do not appear to be crucial to one's stance of faith. Although Craigie tends to form conservative conclusions, he tries to take a middle ground position between the two extremes. As a result, he does not necessarily please either camp: he is considered as either too liberal or too conservative in his views. But Craigie is not concerned with trying to please a certain school of thought; rather, he tries to form his own conclusions. His basic approach is to make a fair presentation of the arguments on both sides and then suggest his own proposal (which usually leans towards the moderately conservative side). At other times, he describes the options but does not give his own opinion on the matter; he leaves the question open suggesting that either alternative may be possible. Consequently, Craigie may sometimes seem to be vague on difficult questions since he does not. take a definite stand.242 But. for the ______________________ 242This non-committal approach is especially noticeable in his introductory textbook, The Old Testament: Its Background. Growth and Content, which was one of his latest writings. This non-partisan stance may be due to the introductory nature of the textbook. Since the purpose of an introductory text is simply to introduce the questions and issues, he may not want it to reflect too strongly his own bias or opinion. The ambivalence may also demonstrate his open attitude to the possible validity of contemporary theories of biblical scholarship. This may be an indication of some development in his thought; he seems to have become more open to the results of biblical criticism later in his career. (See the discussion in section three.) [ Page ] 79 most part Craigie addresses the controversial issues: he is not afraid of the possible implications of critical investigation of the biblical text. Yet he is committed to a belief in Scripture as God's Word, and therefore he has a conservative tendency. Within the bounds of faith, he is open to being guided in his conclusions by the weight of the evidence. [ Page ] 80 2.5 THE CONTINUAL RELEVANCE OF THE BIBLE A very significant aspect of Peter Craigie's approach to the Old Testament is his strong advocacy of the continual vitality and relevance of the Bible to contemorary life. He consistently seeks to make the Scriptures applicable to the current situation of today. This emphasis on relevance is rooted in Craigie's fundamental understanding of the Bible as divine revelation (as has already been demonstrated in section one of this chapter). As the Word of God, the Bible is authoritative for Christian life and practice; thus, the Scriptures have continual relevance. The importance which Craigie places upon this aspect of interpreting the biblical text can be illustrated in his constant emphasis upon moving towards application when studying the Bible. This great concern for showing its relevance is clearly evidenced in Craigie's own personal actions: he wrote extensively on the subject and took every opportunity to speak to different audiences, making the Bible real and relevant for them. He hardly ever turned down an opportunity to speak at a conference or a meeting of any kind. He also believed strongly in lay education and this belief led him to found the "Lay School of Theology" in Calgary; in this context, he taught lay people every Monday night for several years.243 Craigie also published in more popular journals as __________________________ 243Elizabeth Craigie, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom; Peter C. Craigie, Appointment. Diaries, provided courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Craigie of Calgary, Alberta, August, 1989. [ Page ] 81 another way of making the truths of the Bible accessible to the general public.244 These examples of teaching and speaking engagements demonstrate Craigie's advocacy of the continual relevance of the Scriptures; he practiced what he preached. The significance which Craigie places upon biblical application is also well emphasized in his writings on the topic. Although some of his published writings are more technical in nature, especially his earlier work,245 most of his publications, commentaries and articles, stress the pertinence of the Bible to contemporary life. For example, in Craigie's commentary on the minor prophets, he is always drawing parallels between Israel and our modern world: the experience of Israel becomes a "paradigm" for human history.246 Craigie is acutely aware that human nature has not changed much since Arnos was written: "his message continues to speak to each succeeding generation with the same immediate relevance and urgency.”247 In the same way, the prophetic word of Ezekiel still has contemporary relevance; it needs to be heard in this day.248 There are many more examples which could be given, but ___________________________ 244Craigie, "Bibliography of Publications, Theses, Papers." 245The following are a few examples of his more technical early studies; they are the result of his research for his Master's thesis on "Ancient Semitic War Poetry (with Particular Attention to the Song of Deborah)": Peter C. Craigie, "A Note on Judges V 2," VT 18 (I968) 397-99; idem, "Some Further Notes on the Song of Deborah," VT 22 (1972) 349-54. 246Craigie, Minor Prophets: Volume 1, 63. 24 7 Ibid., 123. 248Craigie, Ezekiel, 2. [ Page ] 82 the point has been illustrated, namely, that as part of his approach to Scripture, Craigie attempts to show how the utterances of the prophets, for example, are very up-to-date and applicable to the present reader of their words. This emphasis in approach, in turn, has implications for engaging in biblical interpretation. A vital part of the task of interpreting the Old Testament is seeking to find an appropriate application of the text to the present context. Although the ancient Scriptures contain an eternal message, their message must be understood by, and applied freshly to, each generation. Therein lies the stimulating challenge for the future.249 Therefore, one important reason for engaging in biblical studies is in making it applicable. It is precisely on this point that. Craigie is critical of contemporary biblical scholarship. He believes that making biblical research relevant is a question of responsible scholarship. I make no apology for referring to the role or relevance of biblical scholarship and research. It seems to me to be a matter of simple responsibility — academic, human and religious responsibility -- to assess and understand the role of our enterprise and its relevance in contemporary society.250 Craigie does recognize the strictly academic approach to biblical research as legitimate and important: its central value lies in the shaping of the ____________________________ 249Peter C. Craigie, "Narrowing the Scholar-Preacher Gap in Old Testament. Studies," CT 27/5 (1983) 105. 250Craigie, "Role and Relevance," 24. [ Page ] 83 scholar as a personal But the danger of "ivory-tower” biblical scholarship is that scholars often get bogged down in the technical problems and fail to address the more relevant questions of theology or faith.252 Craigie laments the fact that the training received at many seminaries does not adequately prepare prospective ministers for expounding the revelancy of the Bible from the pulpit.253 Thus, Craigie believes that an essential role of responsible biblical scholarship is showing the applicability of the Bible to the modern contemporary world. Part of the task of making the Scriptures relevant is addressing theological questions in the Bible. Craigie's emphasis upon theological reflection arises from his own personal commitment of faith; the Bible is not merely a book but as God's Word it has claim upon a person's life.254 Consequently, difficult problems of a theological nature in the Bible need to be addressed. Craigie became aware of this need when he studied the problem of war in the Old Testament; he had difficulty reconciling the nature of God with the prominent presence of war in the Bible. This question troubled him even more since so many wars have plagued human history and often in the name of religion. The difficulty of understanding the relationship between war and religion thus developed over a number of years. The problem was never merely intellectual or academic for _________________________ 251Ibid., 27-28. 252Ibid., 26. 253Ibid.; idem,"Narrowing the Gap." 105: idem. Problem of War, 106. 254Craigie. Problem of War, 10. [ Page ] 84 me; rattier, it was an issue intimately related to my practice of Christian living.255 Craigie's pondering on this problem birthed a number of articles and a book on the topic.256 Since this theological issue was a very relevant, problem for Craigie, he advocates that biblical schoarship address the relevant theological questions of the Bible for the modern world. Craigie believes that the relevancy of the Bible is not simply limited to matters of theology and the Christian community but. instead moves beyond them to the broader context of the secular world. He asserts that the Bible holds a valid place within the education system, and especially within the humanities.257 It is my conviction that one central part of the Judaeo- Christian tradition, namely Scripture itself, should have a central place in all education, both public and Catholic.258 The reason that he give for this view is that the Bible has had such a great influence upon western culture that it is impossible to truly _______________________ 255Ibid., 7. 256Craigie, Problem of War; idem, "'Yahweh is a Man of Wars,"' SJT 22 (1969) 183-88; idem, "Hiroshima After Thirty Years: Reflections on the Politics of Omnipotence," CJ. 1/4 (1975) 163-66; idem. "War, Religion, and Scripture," Bulletin of the Canadian Society of Biblical Studies 46 (1986) 3-13. 257Craigie, Old Testament., 328-29; idem, "Some Biblical Perspectives on Education in the Faith," Touchstone 4/2 (May 1986) 9-16; idem. "The Judaeo-Christian Tradition in the Catholic School of the 1980's," Salt: Journal of the Religious Studies and Moral Education Council (Winter 863-84) 3-10. 258Craigie, "Judaeo-Christian Tradition," 6. [ Page ] 85 understand our past history and our present society without a knowledge of the Bible. The Old Testament has had a great, deal to do with the shaping of our civilization; so, if we are to understand ourselves, if we are to learn from whence we have come, it would be wise to know the Old Testament and its substance. Whether we belong to the major religious traditions of our society — Judaism and Christianity -- whether we are persons of belief or unbelief, we should attempt to read and to understand the Old Testament259 The study of the Bible within the context of education is very helpful and relevant because of the influence the Scriptures have had on western civilization. There is another reason why Craigie advocates the use of the Bible in the curriculum of all places of education: there is a need for moral education. The Bible can teach us what it means to be moral human beings; it can instruct us in the principles of right and wrong and make us responsible persons.260 But I would insist, that at all levels, education must have a stream of wisdom and morality running through it, for without that it is not. fully education.261 The importance Craigie places upon the use of the Scriptures to teach moral education can be demonstrated in his publications on the topic and in the number of times he spoke on the issue at teachers' associations and _________________________ 259Craigie, Old Testament, 42. 260Craigie, “Judaeo-Christian Tradition," 6-7; idem. "Some Biblical Perspectives," 15 261Craigie, “Some Biblical Perspectives," 15. [ Page ] 86 conferences.262 He felt that the Bible should be used in all the schools in the province of Alberta, the province in which he lived.263 Craigie was a strong advocate of the importance of the humanitites in the education system. His great interest in the humanities is seen in his writings on the topic as well as in his involvement with the Canadian Federation for the Humanities (1978-82) and Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada Adjudication committees.264 He also served as the Dean of the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Calgary (19 79-84).265 Not only was Craigie interested in the humanities., but he also advocated a prominent place for the Bible within the humanities. No study of the humanities can ignore the Old Testament, not simply because it is a tapestry of ancient life and letters., but principally because it is an extraordinary monument to faith in God as offering a way of human understanding.266 The humanities are disciplines which are concerned with what it means to be fully human; the Bible offers an answer to that quest.. Craigie asserts that the "modern counterpart." of biblical moral education is found _________________________ 262Craigie, "Bibliography of Publications, Theses, Papers"; Craigie, Appointment Diaries. 263Craigie, "Judaeo-Christian Tradition," 6. 264Craigie, Curriculum Vitae 3. 265Harold Coward, "Academic Biography of Peter C. Craigie," in Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter C. Craigie (ed. Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor; JOSTS 67; Sheffield: JSOT, 1988) 595 266Craigie, Old Testament., 328-29. [ Page ] 87 in the arts or humanities.267 He claims that "the study of literature, the reflection upon history., the reading beyond the bounds of one's own culture, are in part a moral exercise."268 In fact, it is not really possible to study history, politics, literature, philosophy or western civilization without a knowledge of the Bible since it has been so influential in shaping our society. Consequently, Craigie insists on the relevance of the Bible and advocates a role for it in the context of the humanities. The focus of this section has been the emphasis that Craigie places upon the continual vitality and relevance of the Bible for contemporary life.; this emphasis is a significant aspect of his approach to the study of the Old Testament. He believes that the message of the Bible is applicable to the present situation, both for theology and Christian life and practice as well as in the broader context of secular society, in the area of education and the humanities. Consequently, he contends that contemporary biblical scholarship should be concerned with demonstrating the relevance of the Bible when engaged in biblical research. Craigie is successful in implementing this aspect of approach in his work in Old Testament studies. 2.6 CONCLUSION The main purpose of this chapter has been to describe and analyze Peter Craigie's perspective on and approach to the study of the Old Testament. This task has been attempted through a limited focus on five topics which ____________________________ 267Craigie, "Some Biblical Perspectives," 15. 268Ibid.,15-16. [ Page ] 88 have significant bearing upon his methodology and which help clarify his understanding of the biblical text. The following areas have been the focus of attention of this chapter: 1) revelation and biblical authority; 2) the Bible in its ancient Near Eastern context; 3) biblical criticism; 4) treatment of difficult issues for conservative scholarship; 5) the continual relevance of the Bible. It has been demonstrated that Craigie's approach to the examination of the Old Testament is best characterized as conservative, adopting a moderately cautious stance in his work. This conservative perspective has been influenced by his high view of Scripture as God's divine Word to his people; this belief, in turn, affects how he understands the Bible within its ancient Near Eastern context, and its value and relevance for the modern situation. This understanding also influences his attitude towards the use of the higher critical tools and methodologies of biblical criticism; as a conservative, he tries to take a very balanced, middle ground approach in an attempt to avoid the pitfalls of extreme positions. The task of this chapter has been essentially descriptive; Craigie's understanding and approach to the Old Testament has been portrayed. The next chapter will focus on the question of "why": I will attempt to identify the factors that influenced Craigie's approach to the Bible. CHAPTER 3 THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCED CRAIGIE'S APPROACH The concern of the present chapter is to identify various factors which influenced Peter Craigie's stance towards the Old Testament. Consequently, this section will probe tangible reasons for Craigie's perspective: What were the formative influences which shaped Craigie's understanding of and approach to the biblical text? In order to determine these factors, the question will be considered in relation to the following topics: 1) education; 2) academic experience; 3) conservative evangelical background; 4) influential people; 5) philosophical issues; 6) significant personal experiences; 7) personality. Since this task is more speculative and subjective in nature, the conclusions here will be inevitably more tentative; the purpose is simply to begin to probe the question. 3.1 Education Peter Craigie was born on August 18, 1938 in Lancaster, England; he was one of three sons born to Hugh and Lilia Craigie. He lived in Edinburgh, Scotland, attending secondary school at Edinburgh Academy.1 After high ______________________ 1Coward, "Academic Biography," 593. This is a brief but. useful academic biography of Craigie's career. [ Page ] 89 [ Page ] 90 school, Craigie served as a Pilot Officer in the Royal Air Force (1956-56); this path took him to South Wales where he served in the Mountain Rescue Unit in the Royal Air Force Administration Branch.2 It was during his time in Wales that Craigie first became interested in studying the Bible. My own first attempt at serious biblical study began while I was serving as an officer in the Royal Air Force. I was advised by a friend to read St. Luke's Gospel with the help of Geldenhuys' commentary.3 With the help of the commentary, the Scriptures came alive to Craigie. This was his first real exposure to the value of Bible study. Following his short time in the military, Craigie came to Canada to study at Prairie Bible Institute in Three Hills, Alberta. The two years spent at this interdemonational Bible College (1958-60) were formative for Craigie's personal Christian walk. The program at Prairie Bible Institute had a great emphasis on world missions and this influenced Craigie; his deep commitment of faith led him to be involved in personal evangelism, including knocking on doors to share his faith.4 This missionary zeal remained with Craigie as he returned to Edinburgh in I960. Mrs. Betty Craigie recalls that when she first met Peter his desire was to go overseas as a missionary; although this desire never came to _________________________ 2Ibid. 3Craigie, Deuteronomy, 9. 4Eugene Combs, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Hamilton, Ontario, 10 November 1989. [ Page ] 91 fruition, in those undergraduate years he was a missionary at home.5 Craigie's time at Prairie Bible Institute was also his first engagement in a more formal study of the Bible. Craigie completed two years of the three-year program at Prairie Bible Institute before returning to Scotland; he did not finish the program because his fattier was able to convince him to attend University instead. Consequently., Craigie enrolled in an undergraduate program in general Arts at the University of Edinburgh. It was in that same year I960 that Craigie met his future wife Betty who was studying medicine. They were married four years later., on September 5, 1964.6 When Craigie began University., he had no intention of studying the Old Testament or ancient Semitic languages. It was simply through taking one course in this area that his interest was sparked. I began my undergraduate studies of the Old Testament quite by accident; a course was offered at the University of Edinburgh which happened to fit my timetable. From that casual beginning I have never ceased reading and enjoying the Old Testament.7 As a consequence, Craigie switched programs and began an honours program in Semitic Languages and Literature. During those five years, he studied the Old Testament, its history and religion and several Semitic languages, including Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac and Ugaritic. Craigie also spent the summer of 1963 in Lebanon studying the Arabic language at ____________________________ 5Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 6Ibid. 7Craigie, Old Testament, 10. [ Page ] 92 the Middle East Centre for Arabic Studies.8 While he was at Edinburgh, he met John Gibson, professor of Hebrew and Aramaic, and the two developed a close relationship.9 Later in his career, Craigie would contribute three volumes to the Daily Study Bible Series which was edited by John Gibson. Craigie earned an M. A. honours degree from the University of Edinburgh in 1965. On completing his first degree, Craigie enrolled at the University of Durham in order to study theology. His intention was to be ordained with the Anglican Church but during his time there he changed his mind; he had some reservations about following this route.10 While he was at Durham, Craigie began working independently on a dissertation topic on Judges 5, something he did apart from his other studies.11 This work would eventually become the basis for his Master's thesis. Craigie was already leaning towards an academic career in biblical studies while pursuing theological training. He earned a post-graduate Diploma in Theology with distinction from the University of Durham in 1967. Craigie continued his education at the University of Aberdeen, where he completed a Master of Theology degree in one year, graduating ____________________________ 8Peter C. Craigie, "Brief Summary of Courses," provided courtesy of the Department of Religion, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, November 1989. 9Stephen G. Wilson, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Toronto, Ontario, 16 November 1989. 10Wilson, Interview. 11Douglas Jones, A Letter of Recommendation on behalf of Peter Craigie, provided courtesy of the Department of Religion, McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, November 1989. [ Page ] 93 in I968. While at Aberdeen, he studied with John Gray who supervised his thesis entitled, "Ancient Semitic War Poetry (with particular attention to Judges 5)"12 In Craigie's study of Hebrew poetry, he had to grapple with its strong war-like content and imagery; this study influenced him to reflect upon the theological problem of war, an interest that continued throughout his academic career.13 John Gray became a good friend who would also have some significant influence upon Craigie's approach to the Old Testament. Craigie completed his formal educational training by returning to Canada in 1968 and enrolling in a doctoral program at the Department of Religion at McMaster University. Craigie took courses in other religious traditions while he worked on his dissertation entitled, "Earliest. Israelite Religion: A Study of the Song of the Sea (Exodus 15:1-16)." Professor Eugene Combs, who supervised his research, became a close friend; their relationship was one of equality and mutual respect.14 Craigie finished his Ph.D. program in two years rather than the normal four years. The enormous speed with which he finished all of his studies became a characteristic of his life. In Mrs. Craigie's words, "Peter was always in a hurry."15 Thus, Craigie graduated from McMaster University in 1970. Peter Craigie's educational experience had an influence upon his perspective and approach to the Old Testament in a number of ways. _________________________ 12Craigie, "Brief Summary of Courses." 13Craigie wrote several articles and a book on the problem of war in the Old Testament. 14Coward, "Academic Biography," 593-94. 15Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. [ Page ] 94 Craigie started out at a fundamentalist school, Praire Bible Institute, where the teaching emphasized the relevance and application of the Bible to one's life and personal faith; thus, there was the strong focus upon personal evangelism and missions. Although Craigie did not remain an "evangelist" (he shared his deep personal faith by example rather than by aggressive witnessing), his enthusiasm for the Bible and its relevance for today did not. diminish as is reflected in his writings on the subject. Craigie's time at the University of Edinburgh was significant because there he became interested in the Old Testament and in Semitic languages. This interest basically set. the direction which the course of his life would eventually take. Although he considered the possibility of ordination for a time, his focus became more academic than practical. Thus, his education was influential in leading him to pursue an academic career. Another important factor in his education is his progression from a very conservative school to more liberal and secular contexts for studying the Bible. The faculty of Theology at the University of Durham was not conservative theologically.16 John Gray at Aberdeen was a Christian but he was not. conservative in his approach to the Old Testament. By the time Craigie came to McMaster, it had become a secular University; the department of Religion fostered a pluralistic environment for studying the Scriptures of various faith traditions.17 The movement from a narrow to a broader perspective for studying the Bible had an influence upon _________________________ 16Wilson, Interview. 17Combs, Interview; John S. Moir, A History of Biblical Studies in Canada: A Sense of Proportion (Chico: Scholars Press, 1982) 93. [ Page ] 95 Craigie's approach to the Old Testament. Although his work tended to be moderately conservative, he was neither narrow nor fundamentalist in his approach.18 He was very open-minded and willing to dialogue with alternative viewpoints. His education led him to read widely and develop an awareness of various perspectives. Consequently, he did not hold to his conservative views in isolation or without serious reflection on other options. His educational experience therefore had a positive infuence on Craigie's approach. Craigie's perspective on the Bible was also influenced by his teachers. The influence of certain individuals will be considered more fully later in another section, but in this context it should be noted that Craigie studied with both evangelical and non-evangelical Christian teachers. It was a significant revelation for Craigie that Old Testament scholars like S. R. Driver and his own teacher John Gray were Christians yet engaged fully in the scientific enterprise of higher criticism. Craigie realized that differences of opinion existed among sincere Christian scholars over biblical criticism rather than simply between Christians and non-Christian, "liberal" scholarship.19 Thus, Craigie did not have a dichotomous "we-they" mentality; consequently, he was less defensive than some of his conservative colleagues. The fact that Craigie studied ___________________________ 18E. W. Nicholson characterizes Craigie's approach as "fundamentalist." (E. W. Nicholson, “Once More Moses and Deuteronomy," Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter C. Craigie, ET 89/5 (Feb 1978) 153.) Nicholson is definitely unfair and incorrect in this judgement. 19J. Glen Taylor, Interviews by Rebecca Idestrom. Toronto, Ontario, 1989- 90. [ Page ] 96 with those whose position he sometimes disagreed with, the fact that his teachers were sincere Christians, although not necessarily evangelical, caused him to be more open-minded and less defensive about his own conclusions. It is possible to denote a slight change or development in Craigie's work on the Old Testament from his education in Britain to his studies at McMaster University. Since his training had been in Semitic languages and history, his early publications tended to be more technical in nature; often, the articles would be demonstrating fine points of his thesis.20 His attention to technical matters, characteristic of his approach at this time, was probably due to John Gray's influence who was also quite technical in his work.21 Eugene Combs believes that Craigie's work began to reflect more philosophical and theological considerations after coming to Canada. This change may have been due to the intellectual atmosphere at McMaster University while Craigie was there as a student. In the late sixties and early severities, the department of Religion at McMaster was the largest religious studies department in Canada with over ninety Ph.D. candidates. The department was well funded and the enrollment was high.22 Combs recalls that it was a period of excitement and intensity as students were grappling with large philosophical questions. Those were the days that George Grant, a somewhat controversial figure and a faculty member at McMaster, was making his opinions known. In keeping with the intellectual climate, Combs hosted a student discussion group twice a ___________________________ 20An example is Craigie's article, "A Note on Judges V.2," 397-99. 21Combs, Interview. 22Ibid.; Moir, A History of Biblical Studies, 93. [ Page ] 97 month as a forum for discussing big issues and philosophical problems. Peter Craigie came to these meetings and participated in the discussions. Combs also encouraged Craigie to reflect upon the philosophy of Spinoza; as a result, Craigie eventually published an article on Spinoza's influence upon higher criticism.23 The general intellectual atmosphere at McMaster during Craigie's student years and the personal influence of Eugene Combs had some effect upon Craigie's reflection upon the Old Testament. Moreover., it is possible to detect at this stage a slight change in Craigie's thought; he began to grapple more with philosophical and theological issues and their implications for interpreting the biblical text. 3.2 Academic Experience Peter Craigie began his academic career teaching as an Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at Carleton University in Ottawa. He remained there for one year (1970-71) before returning to McMaster University. Craigie was appointed Assistant Professor and taught at McMaster for three years (1971-74). In 1974, Craigie was offered two new jobs. Craigie declined the one offer of becoming the Principal of Huron College at. the University of Western Ontario; he accepted the second opportunity, taking the position of Associate Professor at the new Religious Studies department at the University of Calgary. Craigie went to help Harold Coward and Terence Penelhum begin the new religious studies program.24 Their pioneer efforts; were successful; the department ____________________________ 23Craigie "Influence of Spinoza." 24Coward, "Academic Biography," 594. [ Page ] 98 grew quickly and developed both undergraduate and graduate programs. Peter Craigie played an influential role in shaping the program. Craigie's career blossomed during his years in Calgary. There he led a very interesting and extremely active life. He took on both teaching and administrative responsibilities in the university and he gave lectures to clergy and laity in the community. Among his administrative duties, he served as the Head of the Religious Studies department for one year (1977-78), Dean of the Faculty of Humanities for five years (1979-64), Associate Vice-President (Academic) and Chief Academic Officer for Student Affairs for one year (1984-85) and Vice-President (Academic) from July to September of 198526 He also served on several important committees and advisory boards.27 Besides his administrative responsibilities, he continued to write and publish numerous articles and books. He was also the founder and editor of the Newsletter for Ugaritic Studies (1972-65) known and respected world-wide.28 Craigie made a large and significant contribution to the community at large. He was continually being asked to give a lecture or paper to some community group and he rarely turned down st request. He spoke to a great variety of audiences, including religious groups from the Jewish, Christian, Muslim and Buddhist communities as well as associations like the Calgary Police Pipe band, the Kiwanis club and the ___________________________ 25Ibid; Moir, "A History of Biblical Studies," 93. 26Craigie, Curriculum Vitae. 27Coward, "Academic Biography," 595. 28Craigie, Curriculum Vitae. [ Page ] 99 Alberta Teachers' Association.29 Craigie believed strongly in education for the laity and as a result, he started the Lay School of Theology which met regularly each Monday night; he did many of the lectures himself.30 In recognition of his invaluable contribution to the Church community, he was appointed Canon theologian by the Bishop of the Anglican Diocese of Calgary and given an honourary Doctor of Divinity degree by St. Stephen's College, University of Alberta.31 Craigie's academic experience also had an influence upon his perspective and approach to the Old Testament. The fact that Craigie taught at three different religious departments rather than at a Christian seminary is significant. The pluralistic context with its diversity of religious traditions caused Craigie to become even more broad-minded and ecumenical in his perspective. Since he studied and taught other religious traditions, he developed an attitude of respect and sympathy towards other faith perspectives.32 The fact that he often spoke to a variety of religious groups demonstrates this openness. This attitude is reflected in some of his writings on the Old Testament. For example, in his commentary on the book of Jonah, Craigie states that "God is not confined to the Christian Church; his compassion extends to all _________________________ 29Craigie, Appointment. Diaries; Elizabeth Craigie, Interview; Coward, "Academic Biography," 595. 30Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 31Coward, "Academic Biography," 595. 32Harold Coward, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Calgary, Alberta, 17 August 1989. [ Page ] 100 mankind."33 In the preface of his introductory text on the Old Testament, he also expresses this sympathetic attitude: My approach to the Old Testament text, in terms of contemporary biblical scholarship, has offered common ground upon which we all, regardless of religious affiliation or otherwise, can approach the text with the shared goal of understanding it and learning to appreciate its content.34 This open and broad-minded perspective does not mean that Craigie compromised his own faith commitment; he remained a sincere Christian man of integrity, whose deep faith was constantly reflected in his life and in his writings. However, Craigie's exposure to other religious traditions contributed to his open attitude, and his willingness to learn from other perspectives. This in turn affected his scholarship. As a conservative scholar, and indeed as an evangelical,35 he was not. narrow-minded or on the defensive; rather, he entered into open dialogue with those of __________________________ 33Craigie, Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, 228. 34Craigie, Old Testament, 10; For a further example, see idem. Problem of War, 22. 35During the course of my interviews with Lyle Eslinger and Stephen Wilson, they expressed the opinion that "evangelical" was not an apt characterization of Craigie in the final years of his life. My judgement in light of reading Craigie's writings (both early and late) and speaking with others who knew him is that he was indeed an evangelical throughout his career. The confusion, I believe, probably lies in various understandings of the term "evangelical." By evangelical, I do not. mean "fundamentalist." or "evangelistic," but rather a particular Christian outloook which places emphasis upon the importance of having a personal relationship with Christ through faith and which has traditionally had a conservative stance towards the Bible. [ Page ] 101 different perspectives with an attitude of sympathy, tolerance and mutual respect. This is a characteristic feature of his biblical scholarship. 3.3 Conservative Evangelical Background Peter Craigie's evangelical Christian background played an important role in shaping his approach to the Old Testament. Craigie's personal piety and faith affected his world view and his stance towards the Bible; he saw the Scriptures as God's divine revelation to humankind, not simply a human creation. Therefore, Craigie was somewhat cautious when he used the scientific method to study the biblical text.; his faith in the Bible as God's Word placed limitations upon the extent to which he applied the tools of higher criticism. Craigie's personal Christian commitment was influenced by his involvement with various evangelical organizations and churches. He also inherited an association with the Church through his own family. Craigie's mother Lilia had been a Plymouth Brethren until she married his father Hugh, an Anglican; because of this marriage she was excommunicated from the Brethren and she joined the Anglican Church.36 As a result, Craigie had some exposure to Christianity within his family. Craigie's experience with Christianity, however, was much broader in scope than his connection with the Anglican Church. He attended a variety of evangelical churches while he lived in Scotland. While he served in the Royal Air Force in South Wales he attended a Baptist Church; he also attended the Evangelical Free churches. 37 During his first __________________________ 36Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 37Ibid. [ Page ] 102 two years in Canada, he studied at Prairie Bible Institute, which was an interdenominational Bible College. During his undergraduate years at Edinburgh, Craigie was actively involved in Inter-Varsity Fellowship (IVF), an evangelical Christian student organization on the campus. In the summer time, he was also involved in Christian camps.38 Thus, Craigie had a very broad experience with various evangelical traditions before he decided to make the Anglican Church his home base. This openness to other traditions continued through his life and the diversity of experience again affected his biblical scholarship; he always maintained an open-minded attitude towards various perspectives. Craigie’s connection with British conservative evangelicalism was an influential factor in shaping his approach to the biblical text in a. number of ways. In this context, it is helpful to recognize the differences in response to the impact of higher criticism between British evangelicals and North American fundamentalists. The initial British reaction to the scientific approach to biblical examination was strongly negative, but the debate did not become as heated and as controversial in England as it did in North America.39 George Marsden indentifies two reasons for this major difference. . . . it appears that the English conservative evangelicals differed from their American counterparts in two major respects: (1) a lack of widespread militancy, but instead ____________________________ 38Ibid. 39George Marsden, "Fundamentalism as an American Phenomenon, A Comparison with English Evangelicalism," CH 46 (June, 1977) 215-32. [ Page ] 103 Keswick-type emphases on non-controversialist, piety; (2) a lack of general impact on the churches and the culture.40 British evangelicals tended to be less doctrinally militant than the American fundamentalists. Inter-Varsity Fellowship among British University students., for example, emphasized evangelism and personal piety more than doctrinal purity.41 When IVF was first organized in 1928, it was conservative in theology but not to the extreme; it affirmed the infallibility rattier than the inerrancy of the Bible.42 Consequently, British conservative evanglicals responded differently to the inerrancy debate than their American counterparts. Another reason why the British response to higher criticism was not as negative as the American lies in the fact. that those biblical scholars and theologians who adopted the new scientific approach in Britain were often sincere believing Christians; they did not necessarily discount the supernatural or their personal faith in the Scriptures as God's Word. They believed in the compatability between Christian piety and biblical criticism 43 Consequently, some conservative Christian scholars could be characterized as "believing critics" since they engaged fully in the critical ___________________________ 40Ibid., 223-24. 41Ibid„ 221. 42D. W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain 1730-1960's (London: Unwin Human, 1989) 259. 43Mark Noll, Between Faith and Criticism: Evangelicals. Scholarship, and the Bible in America (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986) 73. [ Page ] 104 enterprise.44 As a result, there were a variety of convictions among British evangelical conservatives concerning the nature of Scripture and the validity of biblical criticism. Mark Noll describes the British scene in the following words: "Lines were never drawn as firmly between evangelical and other convictions; blacks and whites more easily gave way to varying shades of gray."4-5 This situation created an openness among conservative evangelicals towards biblical criticism; the subject matter was never as controversial as in North America. Craigie's Christian background was rooted in British evangelicalism rather than in American fundamentalism; this reality contributed significantly to his stance towards the Old Testament and affected his response to the tools of higher criticism. He recognized the limitations of the scientific approach, but he also saw its value and used it whenever it was helpful for illuminating the biblical text. Craigie believed that it. was possible to be a person of faith and engage in the scientific method of biblical investigation; with certain limitations, the two perspectives could be complementary rather than antagonistic to one another.46 Craigie never seemed to have had a crisis of faith over the question of biblical criticism; he did not have a problem reconciling his faith with criticism.47 The general disposition of British conservative evangelicalism probably ________________________ 44David F. Wright, "Soundings in the Doctrine of Scripture in British Evangelicalism in the first half of the twentieth century," TB 31 (I980) 97; Noll, Between Faith and Criticism, 86. 45Noll, Between Faith and Criticism, 87. 46Craigie, Old Testament, 327. 47Combs, Interview. [ Page ] 105 was influential in shaping Craigie's perspective in this way. He was st conservative scholar who was not afraid of biblical criticism; although he was aware of certain limitations, he also recognized its merit. Although Craigie's career led hirn to work within the broader context of contemporary scholarship, he continued to keep his connections with evangelical circles. Twice he was invited to give lectures at Tyndale House, Cambridge, England (1970, 1982), founded by IVF in the 1940s to promote conservative evangelical scholarship.48 He also published several articles in the TSF Bulletin, an evangelical theological students' publication 49 His Christian evangelical background gave hirn a high view and appreciation of the Scriptures which remained with hirn for the rest of his life; as a consequence, the relevance of the Bible and its claim upon one's life became a recurring theme in his writings. Thus, his British conservative evangelical background played a significant role in shaping his perspective and approach to the Old Testament and, in particular, his attitude towards the tools of higher criticism. _______________________ 48Coward, "Academic Biography," 596; Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain, 260. 49Craigie, Bibliography of Publications, Theses, Papers. [ Page ] 106 3.4 Influential People Certain persons and their understanding of the biblical text had an influence upon Craigie's own view of and approach to the Old Testament. Among these people., his teachers played a significant role in shaping Craigie's thought. John Gray., his teacher and thesis supervisor at the University of Aberdeen, had an impact upon Craigie's work; the two became good friends for life.50 The influence of John Gray upon Craigie is evident in the many references to Gray's writings in Craigie's footnotes of his commentaries and articles.51 Craigie wrote his Master's thesis on the Song of Deborah (Judges 5); Gray also had an interest in the Song, as is evident in an article he wrote in memory of Craigie. 52 Gray also wrote a commentary on Judges which he completed the year Craigie came to Aberdeen. 53 The teacher and student did not necessarily agree with each other's views, but even the disagreement over conclusions had a positive influence upon Craigie's thought.54 One characteristic of Craigie's ____________________________ 50Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 51Craigie's esteem for Gray is indicated further by the fact that he dedicated his Psalms commentary to Gray. 52John Gray, "Israel in the Song of Deborah," in Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter Craigie (ed. Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor; JSOTS 67; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988) 421-455. 53John Gray, Joshua, Judges and Ruth (Don Mills: Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., 1967). 54Gray, "Israel in the Song of Deborah," 421. [ Page ] 107 personality was that he was not afraid to disagree with his teachers, yet he was open to learn from points of view different from his own. In his commentary on Deuteronomy, this teachable spirit is manifest in his expression of acknowledgement: "This debt is to all those from whom I have learned, whether or not I have agreed with their conclusions."55 Gray and Craigie were not always in agreement but. they mutually respected one another and learned from each other. Craigie's interest in archaeology and the influence of the ancient Near East upon the Bible probably was promoted by Gray's work in this area.56 Gray believed that the Old Testament must be studied within its ancient. Near Eastern context.57 Craigie had the same philosophy in his approach to the biblical text.58 Gray's work in archaeology likely contributed to Craigie's general interest in this subject, but Gray probably had a more direct influence in stimulating Craigie's fascination with Ugarit.59 Craigie's love for Ugarit and the Ugaritic language began during his studies of Semitic languages at Edinburgh; when he came to Aberdeen, he continued to pursue this interest by reading Ugaritic texts in a weekly reading class.60 John Gray __________________________ 55Craigie, Deuteronomy, 8. 56Craigie quotes continuously from Gray's work on archaeology in his commentary on Deuteronomy (John Gray, Archaeology and the Old Testament [New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd, 1962]). 57Gray, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 3. 58This characteristic feature of his approach has been demonstrated in chapter two of this thesis. 59Taylor, Interview. 60Craigie, "Brief Summary of Courses." [ Page ] 108 also had a keen interest in Ugarit and had written on the subject.61 Gray encouraged Craigie to continue his work in Ugaritic studies as demonstrated from Craigie's career, his love for Ugarit and its language never diminished. Eugene Combs was another important, person in Craigie's life and career. Combs was his teacher and colleague at McMaster University and he also had a certain influence upon Craigie's approach to the Old Testament. In the preface to his commentary on Deuteronomy, Craigie writes a tribute to Combs. I owe a great debt to my colleague, Progessor Eugene Combs. He has not. read this work and might not agree with much of it, but for the intellectual stimulus and the insight which his own words and work have provided, I cannot hope to repay him.62 This is another example where Craigie learned from his teachers even when their opinions differed. Differences of opinion however, did not affect their relationship; they respected one another and became close friends. Combs' influence upon Craigie's thought is best seen in Craigie's philosophical reflection upon Spinoza and his influence upon Old Testament studies.63 Combs had a great interest in the philosophy of __________________________ 61 For example, John Gray, The Legacy of Canaan: The Ras Shamra Texts and their Relevance to the Old Testament. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1957). 62Craigie, Deuteronomy, 9. 63Craigie, "Influence of Spinoza"; Combs, Interview. [ Page ] 109 Spinoza and encouraged Craigie to study Spinoza’s writings.64 Combs recalls that when Craigie first came to McMaster, his approach to the biblical text tended to be technical., focusing on historical and linguistic concerns in his exegesis (an approach which, as noted., probably reflects the influence of John Gray and Craigie's training in Semitic languages). Combs encouraged Craigie to think more about philosophical issues and concerns; in this context., he introduced Craigie to the philosophy of Spinoza.65 This significance of this introduction is reflected in Craigie's writings; the influence of Spinoza upon Old Testament scholarship is a recurring theme.66 Craigie remained close friends with his teachers John Gray and Eugene Combs throughout his life. Their relationship to him was more collegial than pedagogical.67 These positive relationships of mutual respect helped foster Craigie's congenial and courteous response towards all scholars., regardless of their respective positions; this gracious attitude became a characteristic feature of Craigie's scholarship. ________________________ 64Eugene Combs, "Spinoza's Method of Biblical Interpretation and his Political Philosophy," in Modernity and Responsibility (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983) 7-28. Combs particular interest lies in Spinoza's interpretation of Scripture and how it is related to his political philosophy. He contends that scholars must study Spinoza’s views on both subjects in order to understand his position correctly. Craigie’s main interest, however, was in Spinoza's influence upon modern biblical criticism. 65Combs, Interview. 66Craigie, "Influence of Spinoza"; idem, Deuteronomy, 76-77; idem. Problem of War, 27, n. 12. 67Combs, Interview. [ Page ] 110 Although Craigie never followed one particular school of thought, his approach to the Old Testament was shaped by other biblical scholars and their understanding of the Bible. Now and then in his writings, Craigie mentions a scholar whose ideas have influenced him. Kenneth Kitchen is a prime example; Craigie's understanding of the Old Testament had been influenced by Kitchen in a number of ways. In his commentary on Deuteronomy, Craigie states that his view of the history of Israel and of the ancient Near East is essentially the same as that of Kitchen.68 Kitchen claims that the seventeen centuries of Hebrew history described in the Old Testament are not of unusual length in opposition to those who shorten Israel's history because of distrust of the biblical account of the early period. Rather the time period seems normal when it is compared to the rest of the ancient Near East.69 Since Craigie has a positive view of Israelite history, he believes that it is conceivable to date the book of Deuteronomy to the end of the Mosaic period.70 Kitchen also advocates an approach which examines the Old Testament not in isolation but rather in light of its ancient. Near Eastern context.. In Kitchen's words, [a] study of the Old Testament in encapsulated isolation is a sure recipe for disaster. As an external and thus objective measuring-scale, the ancient Near East (in which the Old Testament itself was written) is indispensible for a properly- informed understanding [of] toe externals of the Old Testament. In that context, toe outward phenomena of toe __________________________ 68Craigie, Deuteronomy, 78, n. 13. Craigie refers to K. A. Kitchen's article: "The Old Testament in its Context, 6," TSF Bulletin 64 (1972) 2-10. 69Kenneth A. Kitchen, "The Old Testament in its Context, 6," 4. 70Craigie, Deuteronomy, 78. [ Page ] 111 Old Testament do make sense, and elaborate theories of origins and drastic reconstructions become superfluous.71 Craigie also emphasized the importance of interpreting the Old Testament in relation to its ancient Near Eastern context. Here it. is possible to detect Kitchen’s influence on Craigie's approach to the biblical text. In his Psalms commentary, Craigie acknowledges that his understanding of the Psalms has been influenced to a certain extent by a number of scholars and their approaches.72 However, Craigie prefers the approach of rhetorical criticism in his analysis of the Psalms. In this respect., Craigie follows the approach of N. H. Ridderbos. I have been very postively influenced in the study of many psalms in this volume by the work of N. H. Ridderbos, Die Psalmen (1972), in which a balance is achieved between form-criticism, on the one hand, and a close examination of the distinctive literary structure of each psalm (in terms of the "new stylistics"), on the other hand.73 Craigie believes that literary analysis is a very helpful approach in studying the biblical text; the influence of Ridderbos is evident here.74 Another Old Testament scholar who had some influence upon Craigie was R. K. Harrison; he affected Craigie in a more indirect way, __________________________ 71Kitchen, "Old Testament in its Context, 6," 10. 72Craigie, Psalms, 47. 73Ibid., 48. 74Craigie's interest in the work of Ridderbos is also expressed in the fact that he did a revision of Ridderbos' article on the Psalms. (Peter C. Craigie, Revision of N. H. Ridderbos, "Psalms,” ISBE 3 [1986] 1029-40.) [ Page ] 112 through encouragement and example.75 Craigie’s great respect for the biblical scholarship of R. K. Harrison is expressed in a tribute Craigie wrote to Harrison.76 As a student, Craigie read some of Harrison's books and, later in his career, the two corresponded; he was thankful to Harrison for the advice and encouragement he gave to hirn.77 Harrison's greatest influence upon Craigie was the example he set for conservative scholars; Harrison demonstrated that it was possible to engage in scholarship as a conservative and yet maintain one's faith in the Scripture.78 Craigie also appreciated the fact that Harrison came to conservative conclusions but not because he felt "constrained by the traditional 'conservative'-approaches to Scripture."79 Harrison is conservative in his thought, but he betrays little evidence of being hidebound by traditional conservative perspectives; he feels free to follow the evidence where it leads him but is rarely persuaded by what he considers to be the subjective trends of much of contemporary Old Testament scholarship.80 In this way, Harrsion set an example for Craigie. Unlike Harrison, however, Craigie was not militantly denouncing "liberalism" and higher ___________________________ 75Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 76Peter C. Craigie, "Forward," in Israel's Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Harrison (ed. Avraham Gileadi; Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988)vii-xi. 77Ibid., vii-x; idem, Deuteronomy, 9. 78Craigie, "Forward," x. 79Ibid., ix. 80Ibid. [ Page ] 113 criticism; Craigie had a more positive evaluation of the various methods of higher criticism. Yet Harrison had a certain influence upon Craigie, through his encouragement and by his example as another conservative scholar. George Grant was another person who probably had some influence upon Craigie's thinking. Grant was part of Combs' bi-weekly discussion group in which Craigie participated.81 At that time Craigie respected and admired Grant, but he also felt that Grant was too pessimistic about life in general. Grant prophesied that technology would eventually destroy human civilization; however Craigie did not feel that the situation was that hopeless.82 Yet it is possible to detect a certain influence of Grant's thought upon Craigie later in his career. After Craigie arrived at the University of Calgary he became a strong advocate for the humanities. He argued that the danger of a technological society was the potential loss of the intellectual, philosophical and spiritual aspects of life.83 Consequently, Craigie campaigned for a place for the humanities within society, since they have an important, part to play in the human experience. Thus, part of Craigie's understanding of the role of the humanities may have been shaped to some extent by the philosophy of George Grant. Although it. is difficult to evaluate the influence of close friends and family upon Craigie's approach to biblical studies one may speculate. One ________________________ 81Combs, Interview; George Grant, Technology and Justice (Toronto: Anansi, 1986). 82Ibid. 83Elizabeth Craigie, Interview; Coward, Interview. [ Page ] 114 of Craigie’s best friends was Stephen Wilson, a professor of Religious Studies at Carleton Unversity in Ottawa. They met at the University of Durham and became close friends for life.84 Wilson may not have had direct influence upon Craigie’s understanding of Scripture, but it is possible that their friendship had an influence upon Craigie's attitude towards perspectives which differed from his own. Wilson’s faith began to wane somewhat while he was studying at Durham and eventually he became an atheist.85 This development did not affect Craigie’s relationship with Wilson; they continued as close friends. Craigie did not judge Wilson for this but rather respected him for his intellectual honesty. Tolerance and respect were characteristic of Craigie’s attitude towards people. He was congenial to all, regardless of their religious affiliation, faith commitment, or the absence of it. His friendship with Stephen Wilson may have contributed to Craigie’s cordial disposition towards the opinions of biblical scholars. It is difficult to estimate the influence of the most important person in Peter’s life, his wife Betty. That she had an influence is certain, but the extent of that influence is not possible to determine without knowing Betty well personally. The fact that. Betty Craigie is a medical doctor may have influenced Craigie’s attitude towards the scientific enterprise. Craigie’s fairly positive evaluation of the scientific approach to studying the Scripture may been affected by Betty's work in the scientific field as a physician; this is one possible influence she may have had upon Craigie's work in biblical studies. While this is a possibility, it is ___________________________ 84 Wilson, Interview. 85Ibid.; Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. [ Page ] 115 certain that she was a support and encouragement to him as he himself says: "My wife, Betty, has been patient and understanding throughout, and to her I owe the greatest debt of all."86 Within the scope of this section, it is not possible to focus upon every person who has played an influential role in shaping Craigie's understanding and approach to the Old Testament; no doubt there have been many more persons who have been very important. The subjective nature of the task makes it difficult to identify all the different people. The persons noted above, however, seemed to have been the most influential. 3.5 Philosophical Issues Craigie's perspective and approach to the Bible was shaped by his basic world view, which was, namely, a Christian one; Craigie's belief in God and in the importance of encountering this personal God through a faith commitment was central to his understanding of the meaning of life in general. This philosophy of life is expressed in his Ezekiel commentary. Craigie claims that "to live life without the knowledge that God is the Lord is to miss the entire point of human existence."87 In another place, he writes: "All human beings are summoned to worship their Maker; not to do so, or to do so wrongly, is to miss a part of the meaning of our existence."88 Craigie's personal faith in God affected his whole __________________________ 86Craigie, Deuteronomy, 9. 87Craigie, Ezekiel, 83. 88 Ibid., 64. [ Page ] 116 understanding of the purpose of life this view, in turn, influenced his approach to the Old Testament, As a biblical scholar, Craigie stood fully within the sphere of mainstream contemporary scholarship; he accepted the modern scientific approach to interpreting the Bible but with certain limitations. He recognized the influence of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on human reason and relative knowledge, upon the discipline of biblical studies; this awareness is most notable in his reflection upon the philosophy of Spinoza and his influence upon higher criticism of the Old Testament.89 Because of the naturalistic presuppositions inherent in the scientific perspective, Craigie acknowledged that there would be inevitable tension between the scientific and theological approaches to the biblical text.90 Yet he believed that the two perspectives could be complementary to each other.?1 Since Craigie adopted both a confessional and scientific approach to interpreting the Old Testament, he managed to live with this tension. However, his faith in God and his high view of Scripture put certain limitations upon the extent to which he would use the critical tools. His belief in God and in the Bible as His divine revelation became the particular reference points by which Craigie measured and evaluated everything. Thus, Craigie's faith informed and shaped his whole perspective and affected his approach to Old Testament studies. _____________________________ 89Craigie, "Influence of Spinoza." 90Ibid., 30-32. 91 Craigie, Old Testament, 327. [ Page ] 117 Since Craigie believed that the Bible was God's revealed word to humankind, he contended its relevance and application to modern contemporary life. This fundamental belief shaped Craigie's philosophy of education. As has been demonstrated, he was a strong advocate for a place for the Bible in the education system in general and in the humanities in particular. He also believed in the importance of bridging the gap between biblical scholarship and the general public. This belief caused Craigie to be involved in programs for educating the laity. He also published books and articles which would reach a wider audience. In this way., Craigie's understanding of the Bible as God's Word and its relevance influenced his whole approach to biblical scholarship and to life in general. 3.6 Significant Personal Experiences Of all the experiences which shaped Craigie, one of the most formative, for his understanding of the Old Testament was his service in the Royal Air Force. It was during his military training that the romanticism of war was replaced by a realization of the horror of war. "The full potential of man's inhumanity to man became clear in a way that I could not forget"92 Then as a theological student at Durham, Craigie again faced the problem of war, this time as a theological problem. In his studies of the Old Testament in general and of Hebrew poetry in particular, he encountered the concept of "holy war." The prominence of this concept in the Scriptures disturbed Craigie, especially since it identified God with ___________________________ 92Craigie, "Hiroshima After Thirty Years," 166. [ Page ] 118 war.93 Because he believed the Bible to be the Word of God, it was a relevant and important theological issue. In seeking answers to this theological dilemma, Craigie found little satisfactory help from his professors.94 As a consequence, Craigie became preoccupied with the problem of war throughout his life and wrote a number of articles and a book on the subject. His experiences in the military and during his theological education had an influence upon his understanding of the Bible in general and his reflection upon war in particular. 3.7 Craigie's Personality Craigie's approach to biblical studies was shaped further by his own personality; his tendency to be conservative in his scholarship was probably influenced by his naturally conservative personality. Craigie was conservative in the way he lived. This conservatism was even reflected in how he dressed: he always wore a suit and tie in public.95 Eugene Combs recalls that Craigie even wore his suit and tie on their fishing expeditions together.96 This characteristic feature of Craigie's personality may have been rooted in his background, of Scottish reserve and British politeness. It is possible to see a connection between his conservative personality and his conservative approach; in all likelihood, the one had an influence upon the other. ___________________________ 93Craigie. Problem of War, 7, 106. 94Ibid. 95Elizabeth Craigie, Interview; Wilson, Interview; Combs, Interview. 96Combs, Interview. [ Page ] 119 Although Craigie was conservative, he had a very open-minded and congenial attitude, courteous to all and willing to learn from those of different points; of view. In a memoriam, Leslie Kawamura, a Buddhist priest and colleague of Craigie's in the Religious Studies department of the University of Calgary, described Craigie in the following words: Peter treated everyone equally. He did not favour one person over another. He was open to everyone, regardless of one's race, colour or creed. He was as understanding with the Eastern religious traditions as he was with his own Western religious traditions. He did not. encounter others as white, black, or yellow, but as fellow human beings with mutual imperfections and faults; as well as mutual excellencies and abilities. Consequently, he was a person whose warm sensitivity was felt by everyone he met.97 Craigie's warm and considerate response to other people affected his approach in biblical studies. As a conservative scholar, he was not defensive or antagonistic towards alternative positions and. beliefs: rather, he was always polite, and respectful of other's opinions, giving a fair hearing to their views even if he did not agree with their conclusions. Craigie did not like to offend people or be contentious; therefore he was always careful of his treament of others.98 Craigie's attitude in turn made it possible for him to move more easily within the sphere of mainstream contemporary scholarship; other scholars respected him because of his attitude, even if they disagreed with his position. This courteous and congenial characteristic of his personality was a real asset to Craigie and ________________________ 97Leslie Kawamura, "In Memoriam,” The University of Calgary Gazette (Oct. 9, 1985) 4. 98Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. [ Page ] 120 gave him a fairly balanced approach to biblical scholarship.99 Craigie's warm and open-minded attitude however, did not reflect an uncritical mind; he did not embrace every new trend which came along.100 He was a man of integrity and intellectual honesty and therefore did not hesitate to stand independently or in the minority in his views. 3.8 Conclusion The purpose of this chapter has been to identify and analyze the various factors which played an influential role in shaping Craigie's perspective and approach to Old Testament studies.. Since this undertaking has been a more speculative endeavour because of the subjective nature of the task, the conclusions which have been suggested are inevitably tentative and are offered with some caution. Insofar as it is possible to make judgements with certainty, it has been proposed that Craigie's educational and academic experience played an influential role in shaping his stance towards to the Old Testament. His conservative evangelical background and significant personal experiences also affected his approach. There were particular people as well as philosophical ideas which also had some impact. Finally, his own personality was another factor which influenced his whole approach to biblical scholarship. The cumulative effect of all these factors is significant because together they play an important role in molding Craigie's understanding and approach to Old Testament studies. ___________________________ 99Craigie, Old Testament, 10. 100Ibid. CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION Peter Craigie was an important Canadian figure in contemporary biblical scholarship; he made an invaluable contribution as an Old Testament scholar. The objective of this thesis has been twofold: first, to clarify and analyse Craigie's perspective and approach to the study of the Old Testament; and second, to identify the various factors which shaped his views. This study has demonstrated that Craigie's approach to biblical studies is best characterized as conservative; he adopted a moderately cautious stance in drawing conclusions. Craigie's conservative approach was affected by his Christian faith; he came to the biblical text from a confessional perspective, believing it to be the Word of God. At the same time, he engaged in historical critical analysis of the text pursuing a scientific approach to interpreting the Bible. Although Craigie recognized the inevitable tension between the scientific and confessional approaches, he believed in the importance of both perspectives in approaching the text. At the same time, he asserted that the faith perspective would also place certain limitations upon the extent to which one used the critical tools. Craigie's attitude towards higher criticism set him apart from some of his other conservative colleagues; his disposition was one of openness and willingness to learn. Although Craigie tended to be moderately conservative in approach to biblical studies, he moved easily within the broad spectrum of [ Page ] 121 [ Page ] 122 contemporary scholarship. He did not come to his conclusions by ignoring the alternatives: rattier, he continually interacted with the views of mainline critical scholarship. It was Craigie's deep personal conviction that conservative scholars must engage in dialogue with the wider world of scholarship and come to terms with contemporary issues among scholars. Craigie contended that "to do this effectively., they must work within the intellectual mainstream of the discipline, rather than stand timidly outside."1 He was personally able to accomplish this feat. In this way, Craigie set a good example for conservative scholars. Craigie's openness in accepting higher criticism and in listening to a plurality of views made changes in his outlook possible. That this in fact did happen has been demonstrated in this thesis. There certainly is evidence of development in Craigie's approach to Old Testament studies. It has been demonstrated that some of his earlier work on the biblical text tended to be more technical in nature because of his strong background in history and Semitic languages. Later, Craigie became more concerned with making the results of biblical research available and relevant to the general public, and his work began to reflect more theological and philosophical considerations. There is also evidence that Craigie was more reticent and critical of the value of higher criticism in his earlier years, but later he came to a greater appreciation for the value of biblical criticism.2 Due to this change in his perspective on biblical criticism, it is possible to say that Craigie became less conservative at the __________________________ 1Craigie, "Narrowing the Scholar-Preacher Gap," 105. 2Compare Craigie, "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism," with Craigie, Old Testament. [ Page ] 123 end of his career. He also moved from evangelical contexts to more pluralistic environments in the course of his life which probably contributed to his openness to beliefs different from his own. Craigie was conservative but not narrow and rigid in his perspective; his life experiences helped him to be more open in his outlook and attitude. Nevertheless, his conservative position was one of choice; it was a position of conviction rather than inheritance. His conservatism was dictated by his commitment to the Word of God and shaped by his British evangelical background and experiences, and his naturally conservative personality. He was a conservative scholar of integrity who genuinely believed that his conservative position was reasonable and supportable by the weight of the evidence. Peter Craigie was greatly admired and respected by all who knew him personally or were familiar with his academic achievements;; he made a remarkable contribution and significant impact by his life and work. Based upon a reading of over twenty-five responses of those who reviewed Craigie's publications, it is very clear that Craigie's scholarship was widely respected, even among those who disagreed with his position. With the exception of two or three, every reviewer consulted gave a very positive review of Craigie's work. This demonstrates that, although Craigie's scholarship tended to be conservative, he was able to gain full respect and credibility. His example shows that it is possible to be both conservative and highly regarded. In this way, Craigie serves as an outstanding example for conservative scholarship. The remarkable impression that Craigie's life and career made upon the greater community was also demonstrated by the attendance of [ Page ] 124 over eight hundred people at his funeral.3 Several hundred people also came to a memorial service on October 2, 1985 at the University of Calgary; several friends and colleagues flew in for the occasion.4 His friendly and gracious personality combined with his good humour and warm spirit had made a great impression upon those who had met him. Consequently, there were many who came to honour him in his death. The positive reputation which Craigie held within contemporary scholarship is also manifest in the fact that. Lyle Eslinger and J. Glen Taylor found it relatively easy to get contributions for the memorial volume Ascribe to the Lord in honour of Peter Craigie.5 In the preface to this volume they wrote: "The wide range of scholars who responded to our invitations is itself a testimony to the impact that Peter made on his discipline."6 Craigie was well liked and respected as a conservative scholar; his warm personality combined with his careful scholarship made people receptive to him. Peter Craigie was a remarkable man whose life and work have left a mark upon biblical scholarship. In his short lifetime, he was able to make a significant contribution; he is greatly missed. It was Craigie’s sincere desire that his teaching, speaking, and writing would stimulate greater interest in the Bible. This aspiration is expressed in the preface ____________________________ 3Elizabeth Craigie, Interview. 4Roman Cooney, "Hundreds Honor U of C’s Craigie," Calgary Herald (Oct. 3, 1985) 5Lyle Eslinger, Interview by Rebecca Idestrom, Calgary, Alberta, 18 August 1989. 6Eslinger and Taylor, "Preface," Ascribe to the Lord, ix. [ Page ] 125 of his introductory textbook on the Old Testament: "It is my hope that you too may eventually be surprised by the Old Testament.”7 While it is difficult to measure success in fulfilling such a hope, the depth and strength of Craigie's impact upon Old Testament studies is capable of evoking the excitement he desired about the Bible. __________________________ 7Craigie, Old Testament, 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aitken, Kenneth T. Review of Psalms 1-50. by Peter C. Craigie. EQ 59/2 (April 1987) 155, 157. _______Review of Ugarit and the Old Testament, by Peter C. Craigie. EQ 59 (1987) 155. Althann, Robert. Review of Ugarit and the Old Testament, by Peter C. Craigie. JBL 104 (1985) 505-6. Anderson, G. W. Review of Psalm 1-50, by Peter C. Craigie. JTS 38/1 (April 1967) 141-43. Armerding, Carl E. The Old Testament and Criticism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. Auld, A. Graeme. Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter C. Craigie. SJT 31 (1978) 589-90. Bebbington, D. W. Evangelicalism in Modern Britain 1730-1980’s. London: Unwin Human, 1989. Bodine, Walter R. Review of The Old Testament: Its Background. Growth and Content by Peter C. Craigie. BS 145 (1988)226. Bright. John. Review of Deuteronomy by Peter C. Craigie. Interpretation 32 (1978) 86-88. Burns, Camilla. Review of The Old Testament: Its Background, Growth and Content, by Peter C. Craigie. CBQ 50 (1988) 495-97. Butler, Trent. C. Review of The Problem of War in the Old Testament, by Peter C. Craigie. JSOT 15 (I980) 64-65. Coggan, Donald. Review of Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, by Peter C. Craigie. ET 96 (1984) 25-26. [ Page ] 126 [ Page ] 127 Combs, Eugene. "Spinoza’s Method of Biblical Interpretation and his Political Philosophy." In Modernity and Responsibility. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983. ______Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Hamilton, Ontario, 10 November 1989. Cooney, Roman. "Hundreds Honor U of C's Craigie." Calgary Herald (Oct. 3, 1965) Coward, Harold. "Academic Biography of Peter C. Craigie." In Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter C. Craigie. Edited by Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor. JOSTS 67. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988. _______Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Calgary, Alberta, 17 August 1989. Craigie, Elizabeth. "A word of thanks from Betty Craigie." The University of Calgary Gazette (Oct. 9, 1985)4. ______Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Calgary, Alberta, 17 August 1989. "Craigie Memorial Service." Calgary: University of Calgary (Oct. 2, 1965). Videotape. Craigie, Peter C. "New Trends in Old Testament Criticism." TSF Bulletin 47 (1967) 1-6. _______"A Note on Judges V 2." VT 13 (1968) 397-99. ______"The Conquest and Early Hebrew Poetry." TB20(1969)76-94. ______'"Yahweh is a Man of Wars.'" SJT 22 (1969) 183-88. _______"An Egyptian Expression in the Song of the Sea." VT 20 (1970) 63-66. ________"Hebrew Thought about God and Nature and its Contemporary Significance." CJT 16 (1970) 3-11. ______"The Poetry of Ugarit and Israel." TB 22 (1971)3-31. [ Page ] 126 _______"Some Further Notes on the Song of Deborah." VT 22 (1972) 349- 54. ________"Ancient Dilemmas and New Directions: A Survey of Recent Old Testament Studies." SR 3 (1973-1974) 271-78. _______"The Bible and Archaeology." CJ 1/4 (1975) 163-66. _______"Hiroshima After Thirty Years: Reflections on the Politics of Omnipotence." CJ 1/4 (1975) 163-66. _______"The Dead Sea Scrolls in Perspective." Calgary: University of Calgary, 1975. Videotape. _______The Book of Deuteronomy. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976 _______Review of Judges, by Robert Boling. 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JSOT 18 (I980) 19- 31. _______Review of An Introduction to Old Testament Study, by John Hayes. JBL 100 (1981) 107-9. ______Review of The Word Becoming Flesh, by H. D. Hummel. JBL 100 (1981) 106-7. _______"Ugarit and the Bible: Progress and Regress in 50 Years of Literary Study." In Ugarit in Retrospect. Edited by Gordon D. Young. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1981. "Amos the nōqēd in the light of Ugarit." SR 1 1/1 (1982) 29-33. ______Psalms 1-50. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 19. Waco: Word, 1982. _______Review of War and Peace from Genesis to Revelation, by Verard Eller. CT 26/1 (1982) 74. _______Ezekiel. Daily Study Bible. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983. _______"Narrowing the Scholar-Preacher Gap in Old Testament Studies." CT 27/5 (1983) 105. ______“The Tablets from Ugarit and Their Importance for Biblical Studies." BAR 9/5 (1983) 62-73. _______Ugarit and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. _______"The Judaeo-Christian Tradition in the Catholic School of the 1980‘s." 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Review of Ugarit and the Old Testament, by Peter C. Craigie. SR 12 (1983) 466-67. Frerichs, Wendell W. Review of Ezekiel, by Peter Craigie. CBO 47 (1985) 115-16. Goldingay, John. Review of Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, by Peter C. Craigie. SJT 38 (1985) 441-42. Grant, George P. Philosophy in the Mass Age. Toronto: Copp Clark Publishing, 1959. ______Technology and Justice. Toronto: Anansi. 1986. Gray, John. The Legacy of Canaan: The Ras Shamra Texts and their Relevance to the Old Testament. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1957. ______Archaeology and the Old Testament. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., 1962. _______Joshua, Judges and Ruth. New Century Bible. Don Mills: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1967. ________"Israel in the Song of Deborah." In Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter C. Craigie. Edited by Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor. JSOTS 67. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, I988. Harman, Allan M. Review of Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, by Peter Craigie. RTR 44 (1985) 94. Hasel, Gerhard F. Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972. Humphreys, W. Lee. Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter Craigie. CBQ 39 (1977) 417-18. Hylson-Smith, Kenneth. Evangelicals in the Church of England: 1734- 1984. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1988. [ Page ] 132 Jones, Douglas. A Letter of Recommendation on behalf of Peter Craigie, provided courtesy of the Department of Religion, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, November 1989. Kawamura, Leslie. "In Mernoriam." The University of Calgary Gazette (Oct. 9, 1985) 4. Kitchen, Kenneth A. "The Old Testament in its Context, 6." TSF Bulletin 64 (1972) 2-10. Ladd, George E. The New Testament and Criticism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967. Launderville, Dale. Review of Psalms 1-50, by Peter Cragie. CBQ 46 (1984) 745-46. Lemke, Werner E. Review of The Old Testament: Its Background. Growth and Background, by Peter Craigie. Interpretation 42 (1988) 297-99. Lindars, Barnabas. Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter Craigie. Theology 81 (1978) 65-67. March, Eugene W. Review of Psalms 1-50, by Peter Craigie. JBL 104 (1985) 313-15. Marsden, George."Fundamentalism as an American Phenomenon, A Comparison with English Evangelicalism." CH 46 (June, 1977) 215- 32. Miller, Patrick D. Review of Ugarit and the Old Testament, by Peter Craigie. RSR 4/4 (1983) 372. Moir, John S. A History of Biblical Studies in Canada: A Sense of Proportion. Chico: Scholars Press, 1982. Nicholson, E. W. "Once More Moses and Deuteronomy. "Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter C. Craigie. ET 89/5 (Feb 1978) 152-53. Noll, Mark A. Between Faith and Criticism: Evangelicals. Scholarship, and the Bible in America. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986. Pannell, Randall J. Review of Ezekiel, by Peter Craigie. JBL 104 (1985) 699-700. [ Page ] 133 Perdue, Leo G. Review of The Problem of War in the Old Testament, by Peter Craigie. JBL 99 (1980) 446, 448. "Peter Craigie's contributions remembered." The University of Calgary Gazette (Oct. 9, 1985) 1-2. Robertson, Alan. "Riding the Wind with Peter." The University of Calgary Gazette (Oct. 9, 1985) 4. Sandys-Wunch, John. Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter Craigie. SR 6/4 (1976-77) 463-6.5. Soulen, Richard N. Handbook of Biblical Criticism. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981. Taylor, J. Glen. "Bibliography of Peter C. Craigie." In Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter C. Craigie. Edited by Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor. JSOTS 67. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1966. Taylor, J. Glen. Interviews by Rebecca Idestrom. Toronto, Ontario, 1989- 1990. Wagner, Norman. "Reflections: Memorial Service for Peter Craigie, October 2, 1985“ In Ascribe to the Lord: Biblical and other studies in memory of Peter Craigie. Edited by Lyle Eslinger and Glen Taylor. JSOTS 67. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, I960. Watson, D. F. "Rhetorical Criticism." ISBE 4 (1988) 181-82. Wenham, G. J. Review of Deuteronomy, by Peter Craigie. EQ 49 (1977) 235-36. Wilson, Stephen G. "Peter Campbell Craigie, 1938-1985: In Memoriam." SR 14/2 (1985) 233- ______"Peter Campbell Craigie Dies." BAR 12/1 (1986) 8-9. _______Interview by Rebecca Idestrom. Toronto, Ontario, 16 November 1969. [ Page ] 134 Wright, David F. "Soundings in the Doctrine of Scripture in British Evangelicalism in the first half of the twentieth century." TB 31 (I980) 87-106. ***** This is the end of the e-text. This e-text was brought to you by Tyndale University, J. William Horsey Library - Tyndale Digital Collections *****